Paula Figoni is a food scientist and associate professor at the International Baking and Pastry Institute in the College of Culinary Arts at Johnson & Wales University in Providence, Rhode Island. She has more than ten years of experience in product development and food science at The Pillsbury Company and Ocean Spray Cranberries, Inc.

Preface vii

Acknowledgments xi

1 Introduction to Baking 1

Introduction 2

The Importance of Accuracy in the Bakeshop 2

Balances and Scales 3

Units of Measure 5

Weight and Volume Measurements 5

The Difference Between Weight Ounces and Fluid Ounces 7

The Difference Between Density and Thickness 8

Baker's Percentages 9

The Importance of Controlling Ingredient Temperatures 11

The Importance of Controlling Oven Temperatures 12

Questions for Review 14

Questions for Discussion 14

Exercises and Experiments 15

2 Heat Transfer 19

Introduction 20

Methods of Heat Transfer 20

Questions for Review 26

Questions for Discussion 26

Exercises and Experiments 27

3 Overview of the Baking Process 33

Introduction 34

Setting the Stage for Success 34

Stage I: Mixing 36

Stage II: Baking 38

Stage III: Cooling 44

Questions for Review 45

Questions for Discussion 46

Exercises and Experiments 46

4 Sensory Properties of Food 57

Introduction 58

Appearance 58

Flavor 61

Texture 68

Questions for Review 70

Questions for Discussion 71

Exercises and Experiments 71

5 Wheat Flour 79

Introduction 80

The Wheat Kernel 80

Makeup of Flour 82

Classifying Wheat 83

Particle Size 84

Flour and Dough Additives and Treatments 85

Commercial Grades of White Flours 89

Types of Patent Wheat Flours 91

Other Wheat Flours 94

Functions of Flour 96

Storage of Flours 98

Questions for Review 99

Questions for Discussion 101

Exercises and Experiments 101

6 Variety Grains and Flours 117

Introduction 118

Cereal Grains 118

Alternative Wheat Grains 122

Cereal-Free Grains and Flours 123

Questions for Review 126

Questions for Discussion 126

Exercises and Experiments 127

7 Gluten 135

Introduction 136

The Formation and Development of Gluten 136

Determining Gluten Requirements 138

Controlling Gluten Development 140

Dough Relaxation 150

Questions for Review 152

Questions for Discussion 153

Exercises and Experiments 154

8 Sugar and Other Sweeteners 163

Introduction 164

Sweeteners 164

Dry Crystalline Sugars 167

Syrups 173

Specialty Sweeteners 183

Functions of Sweeteners 186

Storage and Handling 191

Questions for Review 193

Questions for Discussion 194

Exercises and Experiments 195

9 Fats, Oils, and Emulsifiers 213

Introduction 214

Chemistry of Fats, Oils, and Emulsifiers 214

Processing of Fats and Oils 217

Fats and Oils 221

Functions of Fats, Oils, and Emulsifiers 233

Storage and Handling 238

Questions for Review 239

Questions for Discussion 240

Exercises and Experiments 241

10 Eggs and Egg Products 257

Introduction 258

The Makeup of an Egg 258

Commercial Classification of Shell Eggs 261

Egg Products 263

Functions of Eggs 265

More on Coagulation: Basic Egg Custard 269

More on Aeration: Meringue 272

Storage and Handling 275

Questions for Review 277

Questions for Discussion 278

Exercises and Experiments 279

11 Leavening Agents 299

Introduction 300

The Process of Leavening 300

Leavening Gases 301

Yeast Fermentation 304

Chemical Leaveners 308

Storage and Handling 313

Questions for Review 314

Questions for Discussion 315

Exercises and Experiments 315

12 Thickening and Gelling Agents 323

Introduction 324

The Process of Thickening and Gelling 324

Gelatin 325

Vegetable Gums 328

Starches 330

Functions of Thickening and Gelling Agents 336

Storage and Handling 338

Questions for Review 340

Questions for Discussion 341

Exercises and Experiments 342

13 Milk and Milk Products 355

Introduction 356

Common Commercial Processes to Milk and Milk Products 356

Makeup of Milk 358

Milk Products 359

Functions of Milk and Milk Products 365

Storage and Handling 366

Questions for Review 368

Questions for Discussion 368

Exercises and Experiments 369

14 Nuts and Seeds 377

Introduction 378

Composition of Nuts, Kernels, and Seeds 378

Cost 379

Common Nuts, Kernels, and Seeds 380

Toasting Nuts 383

Storage and Handling 384

Questions for Review 386

Questions for Discussion 386

Exercises and Experiments 387

15 Cocoa and Chocolate Products 395

Introduction 396

Cocoa Beans 396

Common Cocoa and Chocolate Products 399

Handling Chocolate Products 412

Functions of Cocoa and Chocolate Products 414

Storage 417

Questions for Review 418

Questions for Discussion 419

Exercises and Experiments 420

16 Fruit and Fruit Products 427

Introduction 428

How Fruit is Purchased 428

Common Fruits 434

Fruit Ripening 437

Storage and Handling 439

Questions for Review 441

Questions for Discussion 442

Exercises and Experiments 442

17 Natural and Artificial Flavorings 453

Introduction 454

A Brief Review of Flavor 454

Flavor Profiles 454

Types of Flavorings 455

Evaluating New Flavorings 462

Storage and Handling 463

Questions for Review 464

Questions for Discussion 464

Exercises and Experiments 465

18 Baking for Health and Wellness 471

Introduction 472

Healthful Baking with the Customer in Mind 472

Guidelines for a Healthful Diet 473

Strategies for Healthful Baking 475

Food Allergies 481

Questions for Review 487

Exercises and Experiments 487

Appendix 499

Bibliography 503

Illustration Credits 504

Index 505