Jo De Waele is Full Professor in the Department of Biological, Geological and Environmental Sciences at the University of Bologna, Italy.

Francisco Gutiérrez is Full Professor in the Department of Earth Sciences at the University of Zaragoza, Spain.

Preface xiv

1 Introduction to Karst 1

1.1 The Term Karst. Definition and Origin 1

1.2 Classification of Karst 2

1.3 Global Distribution of Karst 8

1.4 Karst Terminology 12

2 Karst Rocks 15

2.1 Karst Rocks Within the Rock Classifications 15

2.2 Carbonate Rocks and Minerals 17

2.2.1 Carbonate Minerals 20

2.2.2 Depositional Environments and Components of Marine Limestones 23

2.2.3 Limestone Classification Schemes 28

2.2.4 Carbonate Sequence Stratigraphy 30

2.2.5 Limestone Diagenesis 32

2.2.6 Dolomite and Dolomitization 35

2.2.7 Terrestrial Carbonates 39

2.2.8 Porosity of Carbonate Rocks 44

2.2.9 Other Carbonate Rocks 46

2.2.9.1 Carbonate Conglomerates and Sandstones 46

2.2.9.2 Carbonate Breccias 47

2.2.9.3 Marbles 50

2.2.9.4 Carbonatites 51

2.3 Evaporite Rocks and Minerals 52

2.3.1 Gypsum and Anhydrite 56

2.3.2 Halite 62

2.3.3 Other Salts 65

2.4 Quartz Sandstones and Quartzites 67

3 Dissolution of Karst Rocks 76

3.1 Introduction 76

3.2 Basic Concepts and Parameters 80

3.2.1 Water, an Exceptional Dipolar Molecule and Solvent 80

3.2.2 Concentration Units and Related Parameters 82

3.2.3 Equilibrium Constant and Gibbs Free Energy of Reaction 86

3.2.4 Activity 88

3.2.5 Saturation Index 89

3.2.6 pH and the Acidity of Karst Waters 90

3.3 The Dissolution of Carbonate Rocks in Normal Meteoric Waters 91

3.3.1 Carbon Dioxide in the Atmosphere 92

3.3.2 Carbon Dioxide in Soils 94

3.3.3 Dissolved Carbon Dioxide in Water and the Carbonic Acid System 97

3.3.4 The Dissolution of Calcite and Dolomite 99

3.3.5 The Solubility of Carbonate Minerals 101

3.3.6 Open and Closed CO 2 - Dissolution Systems 102

3.4 The Dissolution of Carbonate Rocks by Sulfuric Acid 105

3.5 The Dissolution of Gypsum and Halite 111

3.6 The Dissolution of Silica 115

3.7 Factors that Influence the Solubility and Saturation State 117

3.7.1 Effects Related to Temperature and Pressure Changes 118

3.7.2 Common-Ion Effect 122

3.7.3 Ionic-Strength Effect 123

3.7.4 Ion-Pair Effect 123

3.7.5 Water Mixing 124

3.7.6 Exotic Inorganic Acids 127

3.7.7 Acid Rain 127

3.8 Dissolution and Precipitation Kinetics of Karst Minerals 130

3.8.1 Dissolution Kinetics of Calcite, Aragonite, and Dolomite 133

3.8.2 Dissolution Kinetics of Gypsum and Halite 141

3.9 Geological Controls on Karst Development 143

3.9.1 Rock Composition and Purity 143

3.9.2 Grain Size and Texture 147

3.9.3 Porosity 148

3.9.4 Bedding Planes and Stratigraphic Contacts 150

3.9.5 Joints 153

3.9.6 Faults 159

3.9.7 Folds 163

3.9.8 Interbedded Non- soluble Rocks 167

3.10 Biokarst Processes 169

3.10.1 Biokarst Processes Associated with the Surface Environment 170

3.10.2 Biokarst Processes in Caves 173

4 Denudation in Karst. Rates and Spatial Distribution 195

4.1 Basic Concepts 195

4.2 Controlling Factors and the Influence of Climate 198

4.3 Methods for Measuring Denudation Rates and the Carbonate Karst Experience 203

4.3.1 Hydrochemical Measurements 203

4.3.2 Weight Loss of Standard Tablets 208

4.3.3 Micro- erosion Meter 210

4.3.4 High- Resolution 3d Surface Models 211

4.3.5 Long- term Surface Lowering around Pedestals, Dikes, and Siliceous Nodules 213

4.3.6 Long- term Erosion Rates Derived from Cosmogenic Chlorine- 36 in Calcite 217

4.4 Denudation Rates in Gypsum and Salt 219

4.5 Solutional Denudation of Quartz Sandstones and Quartzites 228

4.6 Interpretation and Integration of Denudation Rates 233

4.6.1 Vertical and Spatial Distribution of Karst Denudation and Deposition 235

4.6.2 Long- term Rates of Base- Level Lowering and Downcutting 242

5 Karst Hydrogeology 260

5.1 Introduction 260

5.2 Brief Historical Overview on Karst Hydrogeology (