Ronald Bruce St John is an independent scholar who has appeared on Al Jazeera, BBC World Service, CNN News and in The New York Times, amongst other publications and outlets. He has also advised a number of Fortune 500 companies and the US government. He lives in Albuquerque, New Mexico.

Preface to Third Edition

Preface to Second Edition

Preface to First Edition

Maps and Illustrations

Note on Transliteration

Select Chronology of Libyan History

1 Early History

Historical Setting

Phoenician Settlements in Tripolitania

Greek Influence in Cyrenaica

Roman Influence in Libya

Arab Invasions

Fatimids (910–1171)

Hilalian Invasion

Almoravids, Almohads, and Hafsids in Tripolitania

Medieval Cyrenaica and Fezzan

Lasting Impressions

2 Ottoman Occupation, 1551–1911

First Ottoman Occupation (1551–1711)

Karamanli Dynasty (1711–1835)

Barbary Wars

Second Ottoman Occupation (1835–1911)

Sanusi Order

Foreign Schemes and Initiatives

Young Turk Revolution

Transformation

3 Italian Colonial Era, 1911–43

Misplaced Optimism

Early Resistance and Collaboration

Nascent Political Movements

Tripoli Republic, 1918–22

Riconquista, 1923–32

Italian Colonial Policy

Jewish Community

Impact of Italian Occupation

4 Struggle for Independence, 1943–51

Liberation and Occupation

Wartime Discussions

Great Power Gridlock

Regional and Domestic Politics Collide

American Strategic Interests

United Nations Decides

Arab Nationalism, Aid, and Base Rights

Conflicting Interests

5 United Kingdom of Libya, 1951–69

Socioeconomic Inheritance

Palace System of Power

Alliance Politics

Western Dependence

Impact of Oil

National Identity

Rise of Arab Nationalism

Monarchy in Perspective

The End

6 One September Revolution, 1969–73

Young Revolutionaries

Great Power Denouement

Primacy of Oil

Socioeconomic Change

Freedom, Nationalism, and Unity

Popular Revolution

Third Universal Theory

7 Revolution on the Move, 1973–86

The Green Book

Direct Popular Authority

Rush to Socialism

Hydrocarbon Policy

Confrontation with the West

Arab Disunity

Third Circle

Declining Influence Abroad

Confined to the Libyan Playhouse

8 Consolidation and Reform, 1986–98

Revolution within the Revolution

Great Green Charter on Human Rights in the Era of the Masses

Weapons of Mass Destruction

Lockerbie

European Relations

Status Quo in Africa

Turn to the Maghrib

Rule of International Law

Mounting Opposition

9 Libya Resurgent, 1998–2007

Out of Africa

Looking East and West

European Relations

War on Terror

Economic Reform

Hydrocarbons, the Exception

Social Conditions

Political Developments

Qaddafi’s Libya

10 A New Day Dawns, 2008–11

Socioeconomic Reform

Political Reform

Human Rights

Africa

Europe

United States

Arab Spring

February 17 Revolution

Military Events

Political Developments

End of the Beginning

11 Post-Qaddafi Libya

General National Congress Elections

Islamists Ascendant

Constitutional Drafting Process

Descent into Chaos

Libyan Political Agreement

Time for a Reset

Europe

United States

Arab World

Africa

Who Lost Libya?



Further Reading

Notes

Index