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A Comprehensive Introduction to the "Geochemist Toolbox" - the Basic Principles of Modern Geochemistry
In the new edition of William M. White's Geochemistry, undergraduate and graduate students will find each of the core principles of geochemistry covered. From defining key principles and methods to examining Earth's core composition and exploring organic chemistry and fossil fuels, this definitive edition encompasses all the information needed for a solid foundation in the earth sciences for beginners and beyond.
For researchers and applied scientists, this book will act as a useful reference on fundamental theories of geochemistry, applications, and environmental sciences. The new edition includes new chapters on the geochemistry of the Earth's surface (the "critical zone"), marine geochemistry, and applied geochemistry as it relates to environmental applications and geochemical exploration.
* A review of the fundamentals of geochemical thermodynamics and kinetics, trace element and organic geochemistry
* An introduction to radiogenic and stable isotope geochemistry and applications such as geologic time, ancient climates, and diets of prehistoric people
* Formation of the Earth and composition and origins of the core, the mantle, and the crust
* New chapters that cover soils and streams, the oceans, and geochemistry applied to the environment and mineral exploration
In this foundational look at geochemistry, new learners and professionals will find the answer to the essential principles and techniques of the science behind the Earth and its environs.
In the new edition of William M. White's Geochemistry, undergraduate and graduate students will find each of the core principles of geochemistry covered. From defining key principles and methods to examining Earth's core composition and exploring organic chemistry and fossil fuels, this definitive edition encompasses all the information needed for a solid foundation in the earth sciences for beginners and beyond.
For researchers and applied scientists, this book will act as a useful reference on fundamental theories of geochemistry, applications, and environmental sciences. The new edition includes new chapters on the geochemistry of the Earth's surface (the "critical zone"), marine geochemistry, and applied geochemistry as it relates to environmental applications and geochemical exploration.
* A review of the fundamentals of geochemical thermodynamics and kinetics, trace element and organic geochemistry
* An introduction to radiogenic and stable isotope geochemistry and applications such as geologic time, ancient climates, and diets of prehistoric people
* Formation of the Earth and composition and origins of the core, the mantle, and the crust
* New chapters that cover soils and streams, the oceans, and geochemistry applied to the environment and mineral exploration
In this foundational look at geochemistry, new learners and professionals will find the answer to the essential principles and techniques of the science behind the Earth and its environs.
A Comprehensive Introduction to the "Geochemist Toolbox" - the Basic Principles of Modern Geochemistry
In the new edition of William M. White's Geochemistry, undergraduate and graduate students will find each of the core principles of geochemistry covered. From defining key principles and methods to examining Earth's core composition and exploring organic chemistry and fossil fuels, this definitive edition encompasses all the information needed for a solid foundation in the earth sciences for beginners and beyond.
For researchers and applied scientists, this book will act as a useful reference on fundamental theories of geochemistry, applications, and environmental sciences. The new edition includes new chapters on the geochemistry of the Earth's surface (the "critical zone"), marine geochemistry, and applied geochemistry as it relates to environmental applications and geochemical exploration.
* A review of the fundamentals of geochemical thermodynamics and kinetics, trace element and organic geochemistry
* An introduction to radiogenic and stable isotope geochemistry and applications such as geologic time, ancient climates, and diets of prehistoric people
* Formation of the Earth and composition and origins of the core, the mantle, and the crust
* New chapters that cover soils and streams, the oceans, and geochemistry applied to the environment and mineral exploration
In this foundational look at geochemistry, new learners and professionals will find the answer to the essential principles and techniques of the science behind the Earth and its environs.
In the new edition of William M. White's Geochemistry, undergraduate and graduate students will find each of the core principles of geochemistry covered. From defining key principles and methods to examining Earth's core composition and exploring organic chemistry and fossil fuels, this definitive edition encompasses all the information needed for a solid foundation in the earth sciences for beginners and beyond.
For researchers and applied scientists, this book will act as a useful reference on fundamental theories of geochemistry, applications, and environmental sciences. The new edition includes new chapters on the geochemistry of the Earth's surface (the "critical zone"), marine geochemistry, and applied geochemistry as it relates to environmental applications and geochemical exploration.
* A review of the fundamentals of geochemical thermodynamics and kinetics, trace element and organic geochemistry
* An introduction to radiogenic and stable isotope geochemistry and applications such as geologic time, ancient climates, and diets of prehistoric people
* Formation of the Earth and composition and origins of the core, the mantle, and the crust
* New chapters that cover soils and streams, the oceans, and geochemistry applied to the environment and mineral exploration
In this foundational look at geochemistry, new learners and professionals will find the answer to the essential principles and techniques of the science behind the Earth and its environs.
Über den Autor
WILLIAM M. WHITE received his B.Sc. in Geology from the University of California, Berkeley, and a Ph.D. in Oceanography from the University of Rhode Island. He is a professor of earth and atmospheric sciences at Cornell University where he teaches geochemistry. He has been elected a fellow at the Geochemical Society/European Association of Geochemistry and the AGU and named as an ISI highly cited researcher.
Inhaltsverzeichnis
Preface xv
About the companion website xvii
Chapter 1: Introduction 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Beginnings 1
1.3 Geochemistry in the twenty-first century 3
1.4 The philosophy of science 4
1.4.1 Building scientific understanding 4
1.4.2 The scientist as skeptic 5
1.5 Elements, atoms, crystals, and chemical bonds: some chemical fundamentals 6
1.5.1 The periodic table 6
1.5.2 Electrons and orbits 7
1.5.3 Some chemical properties of the elements 9
1.5.4 Chemical bonding 12
1.5.5 Molecules, crystals, and minerals 14
1.6 A brief look at the Earth 19
1.6.1 Structure of the Earth 19
1.6.2 Plate tectonics and the hydrologic cycle 20
1.7 A look ahead 22
References and suggestions for further reading 30
Chapter 2: Energy, entropy, and fundamental thermodynamic concepts 31
2.1 The thermodynamic perspective 31
2.2 Thermodynamic systems and equilibrium 32
2.2.1 Fundamental thermodynamic variables 34
2.2.2 Properties of state 34
2.3 Equations of state 35
2.3.1 Ideal gas law 35
2.3.2 Equations of state for real gases 36
2.3.3 Equation of state for other substances 37
2.4 Temperature, absolute zero, and the zeroth law of thermodynamics 37
2.5 Energy and the first law of thermodynamics 38
2.5.1 Energy 38
2.5.2 Work 39
2.5.3 Path independence, exact differentials, state functions, and the first law 40
2.6 The second law and entropy 41
2.6.1 Statement 41
2.6.2 Statistical mechanics: a microscopic perspective of entropy 42
2.6.3 Integrating factors and exact differentials 48
2.7 Enthalpy 50
2.8 Heat capacity 51
2.8.1 Constant volume heat capacity 52
2.8.2 Constant pressure heat capacity 52
2.8.3 Energy associated with volume and the relationship between Cv and Cp 52
2.8.4 Heat capacity of solids: a problem in quantum physics 53
2.8.5 Relationship of entropy to other state variables 58
2.8.6 Additive nature of silicate heat capacities 58
2.9 The third law and absolute entropy 59
2.9.1 Statement of the third law 59
2.9.2 Absolute entropy 59
2.10 Calculating enthalpy and entropy changes 60
2.10.1 Enthalpy changes due to changes in temperature and pressure 60
2.10.2 Changes in enthalpy due to reactions and change of state 61
2.10.3 Entropies of reaction 62
2.11 Free energy 65
2.11.1 Helmholtz free energy 65
2.11.2 Gibbs free energy 65
2.11.3 Criteria for equilibrium and spontaneity 65
2.11.4 Temperature and pressure dependence of the Gibbs free energy 66
2.12 The Maxwell relations 69
2.13 Summary 70
References and suggestions for further reading 71
Problems 71
Chapter 3: Solutions and thermodynamics of multicomponent systems 74
3.1 Introduction 74
3.2 Phase equilibria 75
3.2.1 Some definitions 75
3.2.2 The Gibbs phase rule 77
3.2.3 The Clapeyron equation 78
3.3 Solutions 80
3.3.1 Raoult's law 80
3.3.2 Henry's law 81
3.4 Chemical potential 81
3.4.1 Partial molar quantities 81
3.4.2 Definition of chemical potential and relationship to Gibbs free energy 82
3.4.3 Properties of the chemical potential 82
3.4.4 The Gibbs-Duhem relation 83
3.4.5 Derivation of the phase rule 84
3.5 Ideal solutions 84
3.5.1 Chemical potential in ideal solutions 84
3.5.2 Volume, enthalpy, entropy, and free energy changes in ideal solutions 84
3.6 Real solutions 86
3.6.1 Chemical potential in real solutions 86
3.6.2 Fugacities 87
3.6.3 Activities and activity coefficients 88
3.6.4 Excess functions 90
3.7 Electrolyte solutions 93
3.7.1 The nature of water and water-electrolyte interaction 93
3.7.2 Some definitions and conventions 94
3.7.3 Activities in electrolytes 96
3.8 Ideal solutions in crystalline solids and their activities 101
3.8.1 Mixing-on-site model 101
3.8.2 Local charge balance model 103
3.9 Equilibrium constants 104
3.9.1 Derivation and definition 104
3.9.2 Law of mass action 105
3.9.3 KD values, apparent equilibrium constants, and the solubility product 107
3.9.4 Henry's law and gas solubilities 108
3.9.5 Temperature dependence of equilibrium constant 108
3.9.6 Pressure dependence of equilibrium constant 109
3.10 Practical approach to electrolyte equilibrium 110
3.10.1 Choosing components and species 110
3.10.2 Mass balance 110
3.10.3 Electrical neutrality 111
3.10.4 Equilibrium constant expressions 112
3.11 Oxidation and reduction 113
3.11.1 Redox in aqueous solutions 114
3.11.2 Redox in magmatic systems 122
3.12 Summary 123
References and suggestions for further reading 124
Problems 125
Chapter 4: Applications of thermodynamics to the Earth 130
4.1 Introduction 130
4.2 Activities in nonideal solid solutions 130
4.2.1 Mathematical models of real solutions: Margules equations 130
4.3 Exsolution phenomena 135
4.4 Thermodynamics and phase diagrams 137
4.4.1 The thermodynamics of melting 138
4.4.2 Thermodynamics of phase diagrams for binary systems 140
4.4.3 Phase diagrams for multicomponent systems 143
4.5 Geothermometry and geobarometry 145
4.5.1 Theoretical considerations 145
4.5.2 Practical thermobarometers 146
4.6 Thermodynamic models of magmas 156
4.6.1 Structure of silicate melts 157
4.6.2 Magma solution models 158
4.7 Reprise: thermodynamics of electrolyte solutions 162
4.7.1 Equation of state for water 163
4.7.2 Activities and mean ionic and single ion quantities 163
4.7.3 Activities in high ionic strength solutions 168
4.7.4 Electrolyte solutions at elevated temperature and pressure 176
4.8 Summary 180
References and suggestions for further reading 181
Problems 184
Chapter 5: Kinetics: the pace of things 188
5.1 Introduction 188
5.2 Reaction kinetics 189
5.2.1 Elementary and overall reactions 189
5.2.2 Reaction mechanisms 189
5.2.3 Reaction rates 190
5.2.4 Rates of complex reactions 196
5.2.5 Steady state and equilibrium 199
5.3 Relationships between kinetics and thermodynamics 201
5.3.1 Principle of detailed balancing 201
5.3.2 Enthalpy and activation energy 201
5.3.3 Aspects of transition state theory 202
5.4 Diffusion 208
5.4.1 Diffusion flux and Fick's laws 208
5.4.2 Diffusion in multicomponent systems 212
5.4.3 Driving force and mechanism of diffusion 218
5.4.4 Diffusion in solids and the temperature dependence of the diffusion coefficient 219
5.4.5 Diffusion in liquids 221
5.4.6 Diffusion in porous media 223
5.5 Surfaces, interfaces, and interface processes 223
5.5.1 The surface free energy 225
5.5.2 The Kelvin effect 225
5.5.3 Nucleation and crystal growth 226
5.5.4 Adsorption 233
5.5.5 Catalysis 234
5.6 Kinetics of dissolution 237
5.6.1 Simple oxides 238
5.6.2 Silicates 240
5.6.3 Nonsilicates 244
5.7 Diagenesis 244
5.7.1 Compositional gradients in accumulating sediment 245
5.7.2 Reduction of sulfate in accumulating sediment 247
5.8 Summary 248
References and suggestions for further reading 250
Problems 252
Chapter 6: Aquatic chemistry 256
6.1 Introduction 256
6.2 Acid-base reactions 256
6.2.1 Proton accounting, charge balance, and conservation equations 257
6.2.2 The carbonate system 260
6.2.3 Conservative and nonconservative ions 264
6.2.4 Total alkalinity and carbonate alkalinity 264
6.2.5 Buffer intensity 268
6.3 Complexation 269
6.3.1 Stability constants 270
6.3.2 Water-related complexes 271
6.3.3 Other complexes 274
6.3.4 Complexation in fresh waters 275
6.4 Dissolution and precipitation reactions 278
6.4.1 Calcium carbonate in groundwaters and surface waters 278
6.4.2 Solubility of Mg 279
6.4.3 Solubility of SiO2 284
6.4.4 Solubility of Al(OH)3 and other hydroxides 285
6.4.5 Dissolution of silicates and related minerals 286
6.5 Clays and their properties 288
6.5.1 Clay mineralogy 289
6.5.2 Ion-exchange properties of clays 291
6.6 Mineral surfaces and their interaction with solutions 292
6.6.1 Adsorption 293
6.6.2 Development of surface charge and the electric double layer 297
6.7 Summary 305
References and suggestions for further reading 306
Problems 306
Chapter 7: Trace elements in igneous processes 309
7.1 Introduction 309
7.1.1 Why care about trace elements? 309
7.1.2 What is a trace element? 310
7.2 Behavior of the elements 311
7.2.1 Goldschmidt's classification 311
7.2.2 The geochemical periodic table 313
7.3 Distribution of trace elements between coexisting phases 324
7.3.1 The partition coefficient 324
7.3.2 Thermodynamic basis 324
7.4 Factors governing the value of partition coefficients 325
7.4.1 Temperature and pressure dependence of the partition coefficient 325
7.4.2 Ionic size and charge 325
7.4.3 Compositional dependency 331
7.4.4 Mineral-liquid partition coefficients for mafic and ultramafic systems 335
7.5 Crystal-field effects 338
7.5.1 Crystal-field theory 338
7.5.2 Crystal-field influences on transition metal partitioning 342
7.6 Trace element distribution during partial melting 343
7.6.1 Equilibrium or batch melting 343
7.6.2 Fractional melting 344
7.6.3 Zone refining 344
7.6.4 Multiphase solids 344
7.6.5 Continuous melting 345
7.6.6 Constraints on melting models 349
7.7 Trace element distribution during crystallization 356
7.7.1 Equilibrium crystallization 356
7.7.2 Fractional crystallization 356
7.7.3 In situ crystallization 357
7.7.4 Crystallization in open system magma chambers 358
7.7.5 Comparing partial melting and crystallization 360
7.8 Summary of trace element variations during melting and crystallization 361
References and suggestions for further reading 362
Problems 364
Chapter 8: Radiogenic isotope geochemistry 367
8.1 Introduction 367
8.2 Physics of the nucleus and the structure of nuclei 369
8.2.1 Nuclear structure and energetics 369
8.2.2 The decay of excited and unstable nuclei 373
8.3 Basics of radiogenic isotope geochemistry and geochronology 378
8.4 Decay systems and their applications 383
8.4.1 Rb-Sr 383
8.4.2 Sm-Nd 384
8.4.3 Lu-Hf 388
8.4.4 Re-Os 391
8.4.5 La-Ce 396
8.4.6 U-Th-Pb 397
8.4.7 U and Th decay series isotopes 403
8.4.8 Isotopes of He and other rare gases 410
8.5 "Extinct" and cosmogenic nuclides 417
8.5.1 "Extinct" radionuclides and...
About the companion website xvii
Chapter 1: Introduction 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Beginnings 1
1.3 Geochemistry in the twenty-first century 3
1.4 The philosophy of science 4
1.4.1 Building scientific understanding 4
1.4.2 The scientist as skeptic 5
1.5 Elements, atoms, crystals, and chemical bonds: some chemical fundamentals 6
1.5.1 The periodic table 6
1.5.2 Electrons and orbits 7
1.5.3 Some chemical properties of the elements 9
1.5.4 Chemical bonding 12
1.5.5 Molecules, crystals, and minerals 14
1.6 A brief look at the Earth 19
1.6.1 Structure of the Earth 19
1.6.2 Plate tectonics and the hydrologic cycle 20
1.7 A look ahead 22
References and suggestions for further reading 30
Chapter 2: Energy, entropy, and fundamental thermodynamic concepts 31
2.1 The thermodynamic perspective 31
2.2 Thermodynamic systems and equilibrium 32
2.2.1 Fundamental thermodynamic variables 34
2.2.2 Properties of state 34
2.3 Equations of state 35
2.3.1 Ideal gas law 35
2.3.2 Equations of state for real gases 36
2.3.3 Equation of state for other substances 37
2.4 Temperature, absolute zero, and the zeroth law of thermodynamics 37
2.5 Energy and the first law of thermodynamics 38
2.5.1 Energy 38
2.5.2 Work 39
2.5.3 Path independence, exact differentials, state functions, and the first law 40
2.6 The second law and entropy 41
2.6.1 Statement 41
2.6.2 Statistical mechanics: a microscopic perspective of entropy 42
2.6.3 Integrating factors and exact differentials 48
2.7 Enthalpy 50
2.8 Heat capacity 51
2.8.1 Constant volume heat capacity 52
2.8.2 Constant pressure heat capacity 52
2.8.3 Energy associated with volume and the relationship between Cv and Cp 52
2.8.4 Heat capacity of solids: a problem in quantum physics 53
2.8.5 Relationship of entropy to other state variables 58
2.8.6 Additive nature of silicate heat capacities 58
2.9 The third law and absolute entropy 59
2.9.1 Statement of the third law 59
2.9.2 Absolute entropy 59
2.10 Calculating enthalpy and entropy changes 60
2.10.1 Enthalpy changes due to changes in temperature and pressure 60
2.10.2 Changes in enthalpy due to reactions and change of state 61
2.10.3 Entropies of reaction 62
2.11 Free energy 65
2.11.1 Helmholtz free energy 65
2.11.2 Gibbs free energy 65
2.11.3 Criteria for equilibrium and spontaneity 65
2.11.4 Temperature and pressure dependence of the Gibbs free energy 66
2.12 The Maxwell relations 69
2.13 Summary 70
References and suggestions for further reading 71
Problems 71
Chapter 3: Solutions and thermodynamics of multicomponent systems 74
3.1 Introduction 74
3.2 Phase equilibria 75
3.2.1 Some definitions 75
3.2.2 The Gibbs phase rule 77
3.2.3 The Clapeyron equation 78
3.3 Solutions 80
3.3.1 Raoult's law 80
3.3.2 Henry's law 81
3.4 Chemical potential 81
3.4.1 Partial molar quantities 81
3.4.2 Definition of chemical potential and relationship to Gibbs free energy 82
3.4.3 Properties of the chemical potential 82
3.4.4 The Gibbs-Duhem relation 83
3.4.5 Derivation of the phase rule 84
3.5 Ideal solutions 84
3.5.1 Chemical potential in ideal solutions 84
3.5.2 Volume, enthalpy, entropy, and free energy changes in ideal solutions 84
3.6 Real solutions 86
3.6.1 Chemical potential in real solutions 86
3.6.2 Fugacities 87
3.6.3 Activities and activity coefficients 88
3.6.4 Excess functions 90
3.7 Electrolyte solutions 93
3.7.1 The nature of water and water-electrolyte interaction 93
3.7.2 Some definitions and conventions 94
3.7.3 Activities in electrolytes 96
3.8 Ideal solutions in crystalline solids and their activities 101
3.8.1 Mixing-on-site model 101
3.8.2 Local charge balance model 103
3.9 Equilibrium constants 104
3.9.1 Derivation and definition 104
3.9.2 Law of mass action 105
3.9.3 KD values, apparent equilibrium constants, and the solubility product 107
3.9.4 Henry's law and gas solubilities 108
3.9.5 Temperature dependence of equilibrium constant 108
3.9.6 Pressure dependence of equilibrium constant 109
3.10 Practical approach to electrolyte equilibrium 110
3.10.1 Choosing components and species 110
3.10.2 Mass balance 110
3.10.3 Electrical neutrality 111
3.10.4 Equilibrium constant expressions 112
3.11 Oxidation and reduction 113
3.11.1 Redox in aqueous solutions 114
3.11.2 Redox in magmatic systems 122
3.12 Summary 123
References and suggestions for further reading 124
Problems 125
Chapter 4: Applications of thermodynamics to the Earth 130
4.1 Introduction 130
4.2 Activities in nonideal solid solutions 130
4.2.1 Mathematical models of real solutions: Margules equations 130
4.3 Exsolution phenomena 135
4.4 Thermodynamics and phase diagrams 137
4.4.1 The thermodynamics of melting 138
4.4.2 Thermodynamics of phase diagrams for binary systems 140
4.4.3 Phase diagrams for multicomponent systems 143
4.5 Geothermometry and geobarometry 145
4.5.1 Theoretical considerations 145
4.5.2 Practical thermobarometers 146
4.6 Thermodynamic models of magmas 156
4.6.1 Structure of silicate melts 157
4.6.2 Magma solution models 158
4.7 Reprise: thermodynamics of electrolyte solutions 162
4.7.1 Equation of state for water 163
4.7.2 Activities and mean ionic and single ion quantities 163
4.7.3 Activities in high ionic strength solutions 168
4.7.4 Electrolyte solutions at elevated temperature and pressure 176
4.8 Summary 180
References and suggestions for further reading 181
Problems 184
Chapter 5: Kinetics: the pace of things 188
5.1 Introduction 188
5.2 Reaction kinetics 189
5.2.1 Elementary and overall reactions 189
5.2.2 Reaction mechanisms 189
5.2.3 Reaction rates 190
5.2.4 Rates of complex reactions 196
5.2.5 Steady state and equilibrium 199
5.3 Relationships between kinetics and thermodynamics 201
5.3.1 Principle of detailed balancing 201
5.3.2 Enthalpy and activation energy 201
5.3.3 Aspects of transition state theory 202
5.4 Diffusion 208
5.4.1 Diffusion flux and Fick's laws 208
5.4.2 Diffusion in multicomponent systems 212
5.4.3 Driving force and mechanism of diffusion 218
5.4.4 Diffusion in solids and the temperature dependence of the diffusion coefficient 219
5.4.5 Diffusion in liquids 221
5.4.6 Diffusion in porous media 223
5.5 Surfaces, interfaces, and interface processes 223
5.5.1 The surface free energy 225
5.5.2 The Kelvin effect 225
5.5.3 Nucleation and crystal growth 226
5.5.4 Adsorption 233
5.5.5 Catalysis 234
5.6 Kinetics of dissolution 237
5.6.1 Simple oxides 238
5.6.2 Silicates 240
5.6.3 Nonsilicates 244
5.7 Diagenesis 244
5.7.1 Compositional gradients in accumulating sediment 245
5.7.2 Reduction of sulfate in accumulating sediment 247
5.8 Summary 248
References and suggestions for further reading 250
Problems 252
Chapter 6: Aquatic chemistry 256
6.1 Introduction 256
6.2 Acid-base reactions 256
6.2.1 Proton accounting, charge balance, and conservation equations 257
6.2.2 The carbonate system 260
6.2.3 Conservative and nonconservative ions 264
6.2.4 Total alkalinity and carbonate alkalinity 264
6.2.5 Buffer intensity 268
6.3 Complexation 269
6.3.1 Stability constants 270
6.3.2 Water-related complexes 271
6.3.3 Other complexes 274
6.3.4 Complexation in fresh waters 275
6.4 Dissolution and precipitation reactions 278
6.4.1 Calcium carbonate in groundwaters and surface waters 278
6.4.2 Solubility of Mg 279
6.4.3 Solubility of SiO2 284
6.4.4 Solubility of Al(OH)3 and other hydroxides 285
6.4.5 Dissolution of silicates and related minerals 286
6.5 Clays and their properties 288
6.5.1 Clay mineralogy 289
6.5.2 Ion-exchange properties of clays 291
6.6 Mineral surfaces and their interaction with solutions 292
6.6.1 Adsorption 293
6.6.2 Development of surface charge and the electric double layer 297
6.7 Summary 305
References and suggestions for further reading 306
Problems 306
Chapter 7: Trace elements in igneous processes 309
7.1 Introduction 309
7.1.1 Why care about trace elements? 309
7.1.2 What is a trace element? 310
7.2 Behavior of the elements 311
7.2.1 Goldschmidt's classification 311
7.2.2 The geochemical periodic table 313
7.3 Distribution of trace elements between coexisting phases 324
7.3.1 The partition coefficient 324
7.3.2 Thermodynamic basis 324
7.4 Factors governing the value of partition coefficients 325
7.4.1 Temperature and pressure dependence of the partition coefficient 325
7.4.2 Ionic size and charge 325
7.4.3 Compositional dependency 331
7.4.4 Mineral-liquid partition coefficients for mafic and ultramafic systems 335
7.5 Crystal-field effects 338
7.5.1 Crystal-field theory 338
7.5.2 Crystal-field influences on transition metal partitioning 342
7.6 Trace element distribution during partial melting 343
7.6.1 Equilibrium or batch melting 343
7.6.2 Fractional melting 344
7.6.3 Zone refining 344
7.6.4 Multiphase solids 344
7.6.5 Continuous melting 345
7.6.6 Constraints on melting models 349
7.7 Trace element distribution during crystallization 356
7.7.1 Equilibrium crystallization 356
7.7.2 Fractional crystallization 356
7.7.3 In situ crystallization 357
7.7.4 Crystallization in open system magma chambers 358
7.7.5 Comparing partial melting and crystallization 360
7.8 Summary of trace element variations during melting and crystallization 361
References and suggestions for further reading 362
Problems 364
Chapter 8: Radiogenic isotope geochemistry 367
8.1 Introduction 367
8.2 Physics of the nucleus and the structure of nuclei 369
8.2.1 Nuclear structure and energetics 369
8.2.2 The decay of excited and unstable nuclei 373
8.3 Basics of radiogenic isotope geochemistry and geochronology 378
8.4 Decay systems and their applications 383
8.4.1 Rb-Sr 383
8.4.2 Sm-Nd 384
8.4.3 Lu-Hf 388
8.4.4 Re-Os 391
8.4.5 La-Ce 396
8.4.6 U-Th-Pb 397
8.4.7 U and Th decay series isotopes 403
8.4.8 Isotopes of He and other rare gases 410
8.5 "Extinct" and cosmogenic nuclides 417
8.5.1 "Extinct" radionuclides and...
Details
| Erscheinungsjahr: | 2020 |
|---|---|
| Fachbereich: | Geologie |
| Genre: | Geowissenschaften |
| Rubrik: | Naturwissenschaften & Technik |
| Medium: | Taschenbuch |
| Seiten: | 960 |
| Inhalt: | 960 S. |
| ISBN-13: | 9781119438052 |
| ISBN-10: | 1119438055 |
| Sprache: | Englisch |
| Herstellernummer: | 1A119438050 |
| Einband: | Kartoniert / Broschiert |
| Autor: | White, William M. |
| Hersteller: | John Wiley and Sons Ltd |
| Maße: | 279 x 217 x 43 mm |
| Von/Mit: | William M. White |
| Erscheinungsdatum: | 08.10.2020 |
| Gewicht: | 2,361 kg |
Über den Autor
WILLIAM M. WHITE received his B.Sc. in Geology from the University of California, Berkeley, and a Ph.D. in Oceanography from the University of Rhode Island. He is a professor of earth and atmospheric sciences at Cornell University where he teaches geochemistry. He has been elected a fellow at the Geochemical Society/European Association of Geochemistry and the AGU and named as an ISI highly cited researcher.
Inhaltsverzeichnis
Preface xv
About the companion website xvii
Chapter 1: Introduction 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Beginnings 1
1.3 Geochemistry in the twenty-first century 3
1.4 The philosophy of science 4
1.4.1 Building scientific understanding 4
1.4.2 The scientist as skeptic 5
1.5 Elements, atoms, crystals, and chemical bonds: some chemical fundamentals 6
1.5.1 The periodic table 6
1.5.2 Electrons and orbits 7
1.5.3 Some chemical properties of the elements 9
1.5.4 Chemical bonding 12
1.5.5 Molecules, crystals, and minerals 14
1.6 A brief look at the Earth 19
1.6.1 Structure of the Earth 19
1.6.2 Plate tectonics and the hydrologic cycle 20
1.7 A look ahead 22
References and suggestions for further reading 30
Chapter 2: Energy, entropy, and fundamental thermodynamic concepts 31
2.1 The thermodynamic perspective 31
2.2 Thermodynamic systems and equilibrium 32
2.2.1 Fundamental thermodynamic variables 34
2.2.2 Properties of state 34
2.3 Equations of state 35
2.3.1 Ideal gas law 35
2.3.2 Equations of state for real gases 36
2.3.3 Equation of state for other substances 37
2.4 Temperature, absolute zero, and the zeroth law of thermodynamics 37
2.5 Energy and the first law of thermodynamics 38
2.5.1 Energy 38
2.5.2 Work 39
2.5.3 Path independence, exact differentials, state functions, and the first law 40
2.6 The second law and entropy 41
2.6.1 Statement 41
2.6.2 Statistical mechanics: a microscopic perspective of entropy 42
2.6.3 Integrating factors and exact differentials 48
2.7 Enthalpy 50
2.8 Heat capacity 51
2.8.1 Constant volume heat capacity 52
2.8.2 Constant pressure heat capacity 52
2.8.3 Energy associated with volume and the relationship between Cv and Cp 52
2.8.4 Heat capacity of solids: a problem in quantum physics 53
2.8.5 Relationship of entropy to other state variables 58
2.8.6 Additive nature of silicate heat capacities 58
2.9 The third law and absolute entropy 59
2.9.1 Statement of the third law 59
2.9.2 Absolute entropy 59
2.10 Calculating enthalpy and entropy changes 60
2.10.1 Enthalpy changes due to changes in temperature and pressure 60
2.10.2 Changes in enthalpy due to reactions and change of state 61
2.10.3 Entropies of reaction 62
2.11 Free energy 65
2.11.1 Helmholtz free energy 65
2.11.2 Gibbs free energy 65
2.11.3 Criteria for equilibrium and spontaneity 65
2.11.4 Temperature and pressure dependence of the Gibbs free energy 66
2.12 The Maxwell relations 69
2.13 Summary 70
References and suggestions for further reading 71
Problems 71
Chapter 3: Solutions and thermodynamics of multicomponent systems 74
3.1 Introduction 74
3.2 Phase equilibria 75
3.2.1 Some definitions 75
3.2.2 The Gibbs phase rule 77
3.2.3 The Clapeyron equation 78
3.3 Solutions 80
3.3.1 Raoult's law 80
3.3.2 Henry's law 81
3.4 Chemical potential 81
3.4.1 Partial molar quantities 81
3.4.2 Definition of chemical potential and relationship to Gibbs free energy 82
3.4.3 Properties of the chemical potential 82
3.4.4 The Gibbs-Duhem relation 83
3.4.5 Derivation of the phase rule 84
3.5 Ideal solutions 84
3.5.1 Chemical potential in ideal solutions 84
3.5.2 Volume, enthalpy, entropy, and free energy changes in ideal solutions 84
3.6 Real solutions 86
3.6.1 Chemical potential in real solutions 86
3.6.2 Fugacities 87
3.6.3 Activities and activity coefficients 88
3.6.4 Excess functions 90
3.7 Electrolyte solutions 93
3.7.1 The nature of water and water-electrolyte interaction 93
3.7.2 Some definitions and conventions 94
3.7.3 Activities in electrolytes 96
3.8 Ideal solutions in crystalline solids and their activities 101
3.8.1 Mixing-on-site model 101
3.8.2 Local charge balance model 103
3.9 Equilibrium constants 104
3.9.1 Derivation and definition 104
3.9.2 Law of mass action 105
3.9.3 KD values, apparent equilibrium constants, and the solubility product 107
3.9.4 Henry's law and gas solubilities 108
3.9.5 Temperature dependence of equilibrium constant 108
3.9.6 Pressure dependence of equilibrium constant 109
3.10 Practical approach to electrolyte equilibrium 110
3.10.1 Choosing components and species 110
3.10.2 Mass balance 110
3.10.3 Electrical neutrality 111
3.10.4 Equilibrium constant expressions 112
3.11 Oxidation and reduction 113
3.11.1 Redox in aqueous solutions 114
3.11.2 Redox in magmatic systems 122
3.12 Summary 123
References and suggestions for further reading 124
Problems 125
Chapter 4: Applications of thermodynamics to the Earth 130
4.1 Introduction 130
4.2 Activities in nonideal solid solutions 130
4.2.1 Mathematical models of real solutions: Margules equations 130
4.3 Exsolution phenomena 135
4.4 Thermodynamics and phase diagrams 137
4.4.1 The thermodynamics of melting 138
4.4.2 Thermodynamics of phase diagrams for binary systems 140
4.4.3 Phase diagrams for multicomponent systems 143
4.5 Geothermometry and geobarometry 145
4.5.1 Theoretical considerations 145
4.5.2 Practical thermobarometers 146
4.6 Thermodynamic models of magmas 156
4.6.1 Structure of silicate melts 157
4.6.2 Magma solution models 158
4.7 Reprise: thermodynamics of electrolyte solutions 162
4.7.1 Equation of state for water 163
4.7.2 Activities and mean ionic and single ion quantities 163
4.7.3 Activities in high ionic strength solutions 168
4.7.4 Electrolyte solutions at elevated temperature and pressure 176
4.8 Summary 180
References and suggestions for further reading 181
Problems 184
Chapter 5: Kinetics: the pace of things 188
5.1 Introduction 188
5.2 Reaction kinetics 189
5.2.1 Elementary and overall reactions 189
5.2.2 Reaction mechanisms 189
5.2.3 Reaction rates 190
5.2.4 Rates of complex reactions 196
5.2.5 Steady state and equilibrium 199
5.3 Relationships between kinetics and thermodynamics 201
5.3.1 Principle of detailed balancing 201
5.3.2 Enthalpy and activation energy 201
5.3.3 Aspects of transition state theory 202
5.4 Diffusion 208
5.4.1 Diffusion flux and Fick's laws 208
5.4.2 Diffusion in multicomponent systems 212
5.4.3 Driving force and mechanism of diffusion 218
5.4.4 Diffusion in solids and the temperature dependence of the diffusion coefficient 219
5.4.5 Diffusion in liquids 221
5.4.6 Diffusion in porous media 223
5.5 Surfaces, interfaces, and interface processes 223
5.5.1 The surface free energy 225
5.5.2 The Kelvin effect 225
5.5.3 Nucleation and crystal growth 226
5.5.4 Adsorption 233
5.5.5 Catalysis 234
5.6 Kinetics of dissolution 237
5.6.1 Simple oxides 238
5.6.2 Silicates 240
5.6.3 Nonsilicates 244
5.7 Diagenesis 244
5.7.1 Compositional gradients in accumulating sediment 245
5.7.2 Reduction of sulfate in accumulating sediment 247
5.8 Summary 248
References and suggestions for further reading 250
Problems 252
Chapter 6: Aquatic chemistry 256
6.1 Introduction 256
6.2 Acid-base reactions 256
6.2.1 Proton accounting, charge balance, and conservation equations 257
6.2.2 The carbonate system 260
6.2.3 Conservative and nonconservative ions 264
6.2.4 Total alkalinity and carbonate alkalinity 264
6.2.5 Buffer intensity 268
6.3 Complexation 269
6.3.1 Stability constants 270
6.3.2 Water-related complexes 271
6.3.3 Other complexes 274
6.3.4 Complexation in fresh waters 275
6.4 Dissolution and precipitation reactions 278
6.4.1 Calcium carbonate in groundwaters and surface waters 278
6.4.2 Solubility of Mg 279
6.4.3 Solubility of SiO2 284
6.4.4 Solubility of Al(OH)3 and other hydroxides 285
6.4.5 Dissolution of silicates and related minerals 286
6.5 Clays and their properties 288
6.5.1 Clay mineralogy 289
6.5.2 Ion-exchange properties of clays 291
6.6 Mineral surfaces and their interaction with solutions 292
6.6.1 Adsorption 293
6.6.2 Development of surface charge and the electric double layer 297
6.7 Summary 305
References and suggestions for further reading 306
Problems 306
Chapter 7: Trace elements in igneous processes 309
7.1 Introduction 309
7.1.1 Why care about trace elements? 309
7.1.2 What is a trace element? 310
7.2 Behavior of the elements 311
7.2.1 Goldschmidt's classification 311
7.2.2 The geochemical periodic table 313
7.3 Distribution of trace elements between coexisting phases 324
7.3.1 The partition coefficient 324
7.3.2 Thermodynamic basis 324
7.4 Factors governing the value of partition coefficients 325
7.4.1 Temperature and pressure dependence of the partition coefficient 325
7.4.2 Ionic size and charge 325
7.4.3 Compositional dependency 331
7.4.4 Mineral-liquid partition coefficients for mafic and ultramafic systems 335
7.5 Crystal-field effects 338
7.5.1 Crystal-field theory 338
7.5.2 Crystal-field influences on transition metal partitioning 342
7.6 Trace element distribution during partial melting 343
7.6.1 Equilibrium or batch melting 343
7.6.2 Fractional melting 344
7.6.3 Zone refining 344
7.6.4 Multiphase solids 344
7.6.5 Continuous melting 345
7.6.6 Constraints on melting models 349
7.7 Trace element distribution during crystallization 356
7.7.1 Equilibrium crystallization 356
7.7.2 Fractional crystallization 356
7.7.3 In situ crystallization 357
7.7.4 Crystallization in open system magma chambers 358
7.7.5 Comparing partial melting and crystallization 360
7.8 Summary of trace element variations during melting and crystallization 361
References and suggestions for further reading 362
Problems 364
Chapter 8: Radiogenic isotope geochemistry 367
8.1 Introduction 367
8.2 Physics of the nucleus and the structure of nuclei 369
8.2.1 Nuclear structure and energetics 369
8.2.2 The decay of excited and unstable nuclei 373
8.3 Basics of radiogenic isotope geochemistry and geochronology 378
8.4 Decay systems and their applications 383
8.4.1 Rb-Sr 383
8.4.2 Sm-Nd 384
8.4.3 Lu-Hf 388
8.4.4 Re-Os 391
8.4.5 La-Ce 396
8.4.6 U-Th-Pb 397
8.4.7 U and Th decay series isotopes 403
8.4.8 Isotopes of He and other rare gases 410
8.5 "Extinct" and cosmogenic nuclides 417
8.5.1 "Extinct" radionuclides and...
About the companion website xvii
Chapter 1: Introduction 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Beginnings 1
1.3 Geochemistry in the twenty-first century 3
1.4 The philosophy of science 4
1.4.1 Building scientific understanding 4
1.4.2 The scientist as skeptic 5
1.5 Elements, atoms, crystals, and chemical bonds: some chemical fundamentals 6
1.5.1 The periodic table 6
1.5.2 Electrons and orbits 7
1.5.3 Some chemical properties of the elements 9
1.5.4 Chemical bonding 12
1.5.5 Molecules, crystals, and minerals 14
1.6 A brief look at the Earth 19
1.6.1 Structure of the Earth 19
1.6.2 Plate tectonics and the hydrologic cycle 20
1.7 A look ahead 22
References and suggestions for further reading 30
Chapter 2: Energy, entropy, and fundamental thermodynamic concepts 31
2.1 The thermodynamic perspective 31
2.2 Thermodynamic systems and equilibrium 32
2.2.1 Fundamental thermodynamic variables 34
2.2.2 Properties of state 34
2.3 Equations of state 35
2.3.1 Ideal gas law 35
2.3.2 Equations of state for real gases 36
2.3.3 Equation of state for other substances 37
2.4 Temperature, absolute zero, and the zeroth law of thermodynamics 37
2.5 Energy and the first law of thermodynamics 38
2.5.1 Energy 38
2.5.2 Work 39
2.5.3 Path independence, exact differentials, state functions, and the first law 40
2.6 The second law and entropy 41
2.6.1 Statement 41
2.6.2 Statistical mechanics: a microscopic perspective of entropy 42
2.6.3 Integrating factors and exact differentials 48
2.7 Enthalpy 50
2.8 Heat capacity 51
2.8.1 Constant volume heat capacity 52
2.8.2 Constant pressure heat capacity 52
2.8.3 Energy associated with volume and the relationship between Cv and Cp 52
2.8.4 Heat capacity of solids: a problem in quantum physics 53
2.8.5 Relationship of entropy to other state variables 58
2.8.6 Additive nature of silicate heat capacities 58
2.9 The third law and absolute entropy 59
2.9.1 Statement of the third law 59
2.9.2 Absolute entropy 59
2.10 Calculating enthalpy and entropy changes 60
2.10.1 Enthalpy changes due to changes in temperature and pressure 60
2.10.2 Changes in enthalpy due to reactions and change of state 61
2.10.3 Entropies of reaction 62
2.11 Free energy 65
2.11.1 Helmholtz free energy 65
2.11.2 Gibbs free energy 65
2.11.3 Criteria for equilibrium and spontaneity 65
2.11.4 Temperature and pressure dependence of the Gibbs free energy 66
2.12 The Maxwell relations 69
2.13 Summary 70
References and suggestions for further reading 71
Problems 71
Chapter 3: Solutions and thermodynamics of multicomponent systems 74
3.1 Introduction 74
3.2 Phase equilibria 75
3.2.1 Some definitions 75
3.2.2 The Gibbs phase rule 77
3.2.3 The Clapeyron equation 78
3.3 Solutions 80
3.3.1 Raoult's law 80
3.3.2 Henry's law 81
3.4 Chemical potential 81
3.4.1 Partial molar quantities 81
3.4.2 Definition of chemical potential and relationship to Gibbs free energy 82
3.4.3 Properties of the chemical potential 82
3.4.4 The Gibbs-Duhem relation 83
3.4.5 Derivation of the phase rule 84
3.5 Ideal solutions 84
3.5.1 Chemical potential in ideal solutions 84
3.5.2 Volume, enthalpy, entropy, and free energy changes in ideal solutions 84
3.6 Real solutions 86
3.6.1 Chemical potential in real solutions 86
3.6.2 Fugacities 87
3.6.3 Activities and activity coefficients 88
3.6.4 Excess functions 90
3.7 Electrolyte solutions 93
3.7.1 The nature of water and water-electrolyte interaction 93
3.7.2 Some definitions and conventions 94
3.7.3 Activities in electrolytes 96
3.8 Ideal solutions in crystalline solids and their activities 101
3.8.1 Mixing-on-site model 101
3.8.2 Local charge balance model 103
3.9 Equilibrium constants 104
3.9.1 Derivation and definition 104
3.9.2 Law of mass action 105
3.9.3 KD values, apparent equilibrium constants, and the solubility product 107
3.9.4 Henry's law and gas solubilities 108
3.9.5 Temperature dependence of equilibrium constant 108
3.9.6 Pressure dependence of equilibrium constant 109
3.10 Practical approach to electrolyte equilibrium 110
3.10.1 Choosing components and species 110
3.10.2 Mass balance 110
3.10.3 Electrical neutrality 111
3.10.4 Equilibrium constant expressions 112
3.11 Oxidation and reduction 113
3.11.1 Redox in aqueous solutions 114
3.11.2 Redox in magmatic systems 122
3.12 Summary 123
References and suggestions for further reading 124
Problems 125
Chapter 4: Applications of thermodynamics to the Earth 130
4.1 Introduction 130
4.2 Activities in nonideal solid solutions 130
4.2.1 Mathematical models of real solutions: Margules equations 130
4.3 Exsolution phenomena 135
4.4 Thermodynamics and phase diagrams 137
4.4.1 The thermodynamics of melting 138
4.4.2 Thermodynamics of phase diagrams for binary systems 140
4.4.3 Phase diagrams for multicomponent systems 143
4.5 Geothermometry and geobarometry 145
4.5.1 Theoretical considerations 145
4.5.2 Practical thermobarometers 146
4.6 Thermodynamic models of magmas 156
4.6.1 Structure of silicate melts 157
4.6.2 Magma solution models 158
4.7 Reprise: thermodynamics of electrolyte solutions 162
4.7.1 Equation of state for water 163
4.7.2 Activities and mean ionic and single ion quantities 163
4.7.3 Activities in high ionic strength solutions 168
4.7.4 Electrolyte solutions at elevated temperature and pressure 176
4.8 Summary 180
References and suggestions for further reading 181
Problems 184
Chapter 5: Kinetics: the pace of things 188
5.1 Introduction 188
5.2 Reaction kinetics 189
5.2.1 Elementary and overall reactions 189
5.2.2 Reaction mechanisms 189
5.2.3 Reaction rates 190
5.2.4 Rates of complex reactions 196
5.2.5 Steady state and equilibrium 199
5.3 Relationships between kinetics and thermodynamics 201
5.3.1 Principle of detailed balancing 201
5.3.2 Enthalpy and activation energy 201
5.3.3 Aspects of transition state theory 202
5.4 Diffusion 208
5.4.1 Diffusion flux and Fick's laws 208
5.4.2 Diffusion in multicomponent systems 212
5.4.3 Driving force and mechanism of diffusion 218
5.4.4 Diffusion in solids and the temperature dependence of the diffusion coefficient 219
5.4.5 Diffusion in liquids 221
5.4.6 Diffusion in porous media 223
5.5 Surfaces, interfaces, and interface processes 223
5.5.1 The surface free energy 225
5.5.2 The Kelvin effect 225
5.5.3 Nucleation and crystal growth 226
5.5.4 Adsorption 233
5.5.5 Catalysis 234
5.6 Kinetics of dissolution 237
5.6.1 Simple oxides 238
5.6.2 Silicates 240
5.6.3 Nonsilicates 244
5.7 Diagenesis 244
5.7.1 Compositional gradients in accumulating sediment 245
5.7.2 Reduction of sulfate in accumulating sediment 247
5.8 Summary 248
References and suggestions for further reading 250
Problems 252
Chapter 6: Aquatic chemistry 256
6.1 Introduction 256
6.2 Acid-base reactions 256
6.2.1 Proton accounting, charge balance, and conservation equations 257
6.2.2 The carbonate system 260
6.2.3 Conservative and nonconservative ions 264
6.2.4 Total alkalinity and carbonate alkalinity 264
6.2.5 Buffer intensity 268
6.3 Complexation 269
6.3.1 Stability constants 270
6.3.2 Water-related complexes 271
6.3.3 Other complexes 274
6.3.4 Complexation in fresh waters 275
6.4 Dissolution and precipitation reactions 278
6.4.1 Calcium carbonate in groundwaters and surface waters 278
6.4.2 Solubility of Mg 279
6.4.3 Solubility of SiO2 284
6.4.4 Solubility of Al(OH)3 and other hydroxides 285
6.4.5 Dissolution of silicates and related minerals 286
6.5 Clays and their properties 288
6.5.1 Clay mineralogy 289
6.5.2 Ion-exchange properties of clays 291
6.6 Mineral surfaces and their interaction with solutions 292
6.6.1 Adsorption 293
6.6.2 Development of surface charge and the electric double layer 297
6.7 Summary 305
References and suggestions for further reading 306
Problems 306
Chapter 7: Trace elements in igneous processes 309
7.1 Introduction 309
7.1.1 Why care about trace elements? 309
7.1.2 What is a trace element? 310
7.2 Behavior of the elements 311
7.2.1 Goldschmidt's classification 311
7.2.2 The geochemical periodic table 313
7.3 Distribution of trace elements between coexisting phases 324
7.3.1 The partition coefficient 324
7.3.2 Thermodynamic basis 324
7.4 Factors governing the value of partition coefficients 325
7.4.1 Temperature and pressure dependence of the partition coefficient 325
7.4.2 Ionic size and charge 325
7.4.3 Compositional dependency 331
7.4.4 Mineral-liquid partition coefficients for mafic and ultramafic systems 335
7.5 Crystal-field effects 338
7.5.1 Crystal-field theory 338
7.5.2 Crystal-field influences on transition metal partitioning 342
7.6 Trace element distribution during partial melting 343
7.6.1 Equilibrium or batch melting 343
7.6.2 Fractional melting 344
7.6.3 Zone refining 344
7.6.4 Multiphase solids 344
7.6.5 Continuous melting 345
7.6.6 Constraints on melting models 349
7.7 Trace element distribution during crystallization 356
7.7.1 Equilibrium crystallization 356
7.7.2 Fractional crystallization 356
7.7.3 In situ crystallization 357
7.7.4 Crystallization in open system magma chambers 358
7.7.5 Comparing partial melting and crystallization 360
7.8 Summary of trace element variations during melting and crystallization 361
References and suggestions for further reading 362
Problems 364
Chapter 8: Radiogenic isotope geochemistry 367
8.1 Introduction 367
8.2 Physics of the nucleus and the structure of nuclei 369
8.2.1 Nuclear structure and energetics 369
8.2.2 The decay of excited and unstable nuclei 373
8.3 Basics of radiogenic isotope geochemistry and geochronology 378
8.4 Decay systems and their applications 383
8.4.1 Rb-Sr 383
8.4.2 Sm-Nd 384
8.4.3 Lu-Hf 388
8.4.4 Re-Os 391
8.4.5 La-Ce 396
8.4.6 U-Th-Pb 397
8.4.7 U and Th decay series isotopes 403
8.4.8 Isotopes of He and other rare gases 410
8.5 "Extinct" and cosmogenic nuclides 417
8.5.1 "Extinct" radionuclides and...
Details
| Erscheinungsjahr: | 2020 |
|---|---|
| Fachbereich: | Geologie |
| Genre: | Geowissenschaften |
| Rubrik: | Naturwissenschaften & Technik |
| Medium: | Taschenbuch |
| Seiten: | 960 |
| Inhalt: | 960 S. |
| ISBN-13: | 9781119438052 |
| ISBN-10: | 1119438055 |
| Sprache: | Englisch |
| Herstellernummer: | 1A119438050 |
| Einband: | Kartoniert / Broschiert |
| Autor: | White, William M. |
| Hersteller: | John Wiley and Sons Ltd |
| Maße: | 279 x 217 x 43 mm |
| Von/Mit: | William M. White |
| Erscheinungsdatum: | 08.10.2020 |
| Gewicht: | 2,361 kg |
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