Viggo Norn is Managing Director of Nexus A/S, a company which provides R&D, analytical and legislation-related services to Palsgaard A/S, a global food ingredients company. He is based in Juelsminde, Denmark.

Contributors xiii Preface to the Second Edition xv 1 Introduction to Food Emulsifiers and Colloidal System 1Viggo Norn 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Food emulsifiers 6 References 18 2 Lecithins 21Hanns-Georg Bueschelberger, Susanne Tirok, Ilona Stoffels and Arnulf Schoeppe 2.1 Introduction to lecithins and phospholipids 22 2.1.1 Some history 22 2.1.2 Phospholipids 22 2.1.3 Occurrence of phospholipids 24 2.2 Production of lecithins 25 2.2.1 Vegetable lecithin 26 2.2.2 Animal lecithins 27 2.3 Further processing of lecithins 27 2.3.1 Standardization 27 2.3.2 Modifications of lecithins 27 2.3.3 Solvent extraction 30 2.4 Quality aspects of lecithins 33 2.4.1 Acetone-insoluble matter (AI) 34 2.4.2 Toluene-insoluble (TI) 34 2.4.3 Acid value (AV) 34 2.4.4 Peroxide value (PV) 34 2.4.5 Water content (H 2 O) 35 2.5 Physico-chemical aspects of lecithins 35 2.5.1 Solubility in organic solvents 35 2.5.2 Behaviour in water 35 2.5.3 Melting points 36 2.5.4 Surface activity 36 2.5.5 Lecithins and the HLB system 37 2.6 Applications of lecithins in the food industry 38 2.6.1 Lecithin in chocolate, coatings and confectioneries 39 2.6.2 Lecithins in the baking industry 45 2.6.3 Instant technology 50 2.6.4 Emulsions 53 2.6.5 Other applications 58 2.7 Market outlook 59 Acknowledgement 60 References 60 3 Ammonium Phosphatides 61Viggo Norn 3.1 Introduction 61 3.2 Production of ammonium phosphatides 62 3.3 Physical and chemical properties of ammonium phosphatides 65 3.4 Food applications of ammonium phosphatides 65 3.5 Other food applications 71 3.6 Summary 71 References 72 4 Mono- and Diglycerides 73Hans Moonen and Henny Bas 4.1 Introduction 73 4.2 The Products 74 4.2.1 Production of monoglycerides 74 4.2.2 Molecular distillation 75 4.2.3 Chemical and physical properties 75 4.2.4 HLB value 76 4.2.5 Addition of antioxidants 76 4.2.6 Legal considerations 77 4.2.7 Behaviour of monoglycerides in the presence of water 77 4.2.8 Nutritional value 79 4.3 Applications 79 4.3.1 Cakes 82 4.3.2 Margarines and spreads 85 4.3.3 Ice cream 86 Acknowledgements 90 References 90 5 Acid Esters of Mono- and Diglycerides 93Rolf Gaupp and Wolfgang Adams 5.1 E472a (ACETEM) 93 5.1.1 Chemical properties of ACETEM 94 5.1.2 Manufacturing of ACETEM 96 5.1.3 Appearance and physical properties 97 5.1.4 Solubility 97 5.1.5 Phase behaviour 100 5.1.6 Surface-active properties 100 5.1.7 Special properties of ACETEM 100 5.1.8 Safety 101 5.1.9 Typical applications in food 101 5.1.10 Non-food applications 102 5.2 E472b (LACTEM) 102 5.2.1 Chemical properties of LACTEM 102 5.2.2 Manufacturing of LACTEM 105 5.2.3 Appearance and physical properties 106 5.2.4 Solubility 106 5.2.5 Phase behaviour 106 5.2.6 Surface activity 106 5.2.7 Special properties of LACTEM 106 5.2.8 Safety in use 108 5.2.9 Typical applications in food 108 5.3 E472c (CITREM) 108 5.3.1 Chemical properties of CITREM 109 5.3.2 Manufacturing of CITREM 111 5.3.3 Appearance and physical properties 111 5.3.4 Solubility 111 5.3.5 Phase behaviour 113 5.3.6 Surface-active properties 113 5.3.7 Special properties of CITREM 114 5.3.8 Safety in use 114 5.3.9 Typical applications in food 115 5.3.10 Non-food applications 116 5.4 E472e (DATEM) 116 5.5 E472d (TATEM) 116 5.6 E472f (MATEM) 116 5.6.1 Appearance 117 5.6.2 Solubility 117 5.6.3 Safety in use 117 5.6.4 Typical applications in food 118 References 119 6 Diacetyl Tartaric Esters of Monoglycerides (DATEM) and Associated Emulsifiers in Bread Making 121Rolf Gaupp and Wolfgang Adams 6.1 What are DATEM? 121 6.1.1 Chemical characterization 121 6.2 General properties of DATEM 123 6.2.1 Appearance 123 6.2.2 Thermostability 123 6.2.3 Hydrolysis 125 6.2.4 Storage 125 6.3 Physical and chemical properties of DATEM 125 6.3.1 Physical properties 125 6.3.2 Solubility 126 6.3.3 Mesomorphic phase behaviour 126 6.3.4 Surface-active properties 126 6.3.5 Safety 127 6.4 Typical applications of DATEM in food 127 6.5 DATEM in the baking process 128 6.5.1 Bread making 130 6.5.2 Flour 130 6.5.3 Interaction of DATEM with starch 130 6.5.4 Interaction of DATEM with flour proteins 134 6.5.5 Interaction of DATEM with flour lipids 136 6.5.6 Use and action of DATEM during manufacturing and storage of baked goods 136 6.6 Action of emulsifiers in fine baked goods 138 6.6.1 DATEM in fine baked goods 139 6.7 Summary and conclusions 141 References 142 7 Sucrose Esters 147Bianca A. P. Nelen, Lia Bax and Julian M. Cooper 7.1 Introduction 147 7.2 Early history of sucrose esters 149 7.3 Production routes to sucrose esters 150 7.4 Purification methods for sucrose esters 153 7.5 Sucroglycerides and sucrose ester detergents 154 7.6 Functional properties of sucrose esters 155 7.6.1 Emulsification 155 7.6.2 Interactions with proteins (gluten, dairy proteins) 155 7.6.3 Interactions with starch 157 7.6.4 Control of sugar crystallization 159 7.6.5 Aeration and foam stabilization 160 7.6.6 Anti-microbial properties 161 7.7 Physico-chemical properties of sucrose esters 162 7.7.1 Solubility 162 7.7.2 pH stability 162 7.7.3 Thermal stability 163 7.7.4 Preparation of sucrose ester solutions 163 7.8 Food applications 164 7.8.1 Dressing and sauces 164 7.8.2 Confectionery 165 7.8.3 Bakery 167 7.8.4 Icings and fillings 169 7.8.5 Ice cream 172 7.8.6 Special emulsions 173 7.9 Legal status 174 [...]ope 174 7.9.2 USA 174 7.9.3 Canada 176 7.9.4 Japan 176 References 176 8 Polyglycerol Esters 181Viggo Norn 8.1 Introduction 181 8.2 Legislation 182 8.3 Synthesis of polyglycerol 182 8.4 Synthesis of polyglycerol ester 185 8.5 Properties of polyglycerol esters 188 8.5.1 Stability 188 8.5.2 Physical properties 189 8.6 Food applications of polyglycerol ester 195 8.6.1 Margarines 195 8.6.2 Cakes 198 8.6.3 Shelf life of baked products 202 8.6.4 Creams and toppings 202 8.6.5 Fats 203 8.6.6 Other applications 203 8.7 Conclusion 203 References 204 9 PGPR, Polyglycerolpolyricinoleate, E 476 209Kim Christiansen 9.1 Introduction 209 9.2 Production of PGPR 210 9.2.1 Synthesis of polyglycerol 210 9.2.2 Synthesis of polyricinoleate 211 9.2.3 Synthesis of PGPR 213 9.3 Legal regulation 214 9.4 Physical and chemical properties of PGPR 215 9.5 Applications of PGPR 216 9.5.1 Application in food 217 9.5.2 Application in non-foods 225 9.6 Conclusion 226 References 227 10 Propylene Glycol Fatty Acid Esters 231Flemming Vang Sparsø 10.1 Introduction 231 10.2 Chemistry and physical properties 231 10.2.1 Pure, synthetic propylene glycol fatty acid esters 232 10.2.2 Commercial, mixed fatty acid esters of propylene glycol 233 10.3 Production 239 10.3.1 Regulatory status 241 10.4 Food applications 241 10.4.1 Aerated bakery products and cake mixes 241 10.4.2 Sponge cakes, fat-free cakes 243 10.4.3 Dessert products, toppings, non-dairy whipping creams, etc. 244 10.4.4 Ice cream 248 10.4.5 Other applications 249 References 249 11 Stearoyl-2-Lactylates and Oleoyl Lactylates 251Troy Boutte and Larry Skogerson 11.1 Introduction 251 11.2 Lactylate regulations 252 11.3 Lactylate manufacturing 253 11.4 Lactylate chemistry 257 11.5 Lactylate applications 258 11.6 Interactions between lactylates and starch 258 11.7 Interactions between lactylates and proteins 260 11.8 Lactylates in yeast-raised bakery products and crumb softening 261 11.9 Dough strengthening 262 11.10 Cakes and chemically leavened baked goods 264 11.11 Lactylate use in cookies and crackers 266 11.12 Application of lactylates in pastas 268 References 269 12 Sorbitan Esters and Polysorbates 271Tim Cottrell and Judith van Peij 12.1 Introduction 271 12.2 Historical development 272 12.3 Production 272 12.3.1 Production of sorbitan esters 272 12.3.2 Production of polysorbates 275 12.4 Physicochemical properties 276 12.5 Emulsifiers in solution 279 12.5.1 Emulsions 279 12.5.2 Molecular arrangement and Critical Micelle Concentrations (CMC) 279 12.5.3 Effect of temperature 280 12.5.4 Protein-emulsifier interactions 281 12.5.5 Solubilization and microemulsions 282 12.6 Applications 284 12.6.1 Fine bakers' wares 285 12.6.2 Bread 285 12.6.3 Active dry yeast 286 12.6.4 Beverages 286 12.6.5 Dairy 287 12.6.6 Margarine and spreads 288 12.6.7 Chocolate and confectionery coatings 289 12.7 Regulations 289 12.8 Toxicology 292 12.9 Concluding remarks 293 References 293 13 Application of Emulsifiers in Dairy and Ice Cream Products 297Hanne K. Ludvigsen 13.1 Introduction to dairy technology 297 13.1.1 Milk proteins 298 13.1.2 Fat 298 13.1.3 Other milk constituents 298 13.1.4 Milk processing 299 13.2 Emulsifiers in dairy applications 299 13.2.1 Recombined milk 300 13.2.2 Imitation whipping cream 300 13.2.3 Powdered coffee whitener 301 13.3 Emulsifiers in ice cream 301 13.3.1 Composition of ice cream 302 13.3.2 Functionality of emulsifiers in ice cream 303 References 308 14 Regulation of Food Emulsifiers in the European Union 309Frances Hunt 14.1 Safety evaluation of food emulsifiers 309 14.2 Authorization of food emulsifiers 311 14.3 Food additives in food emulsifiers 317 14.4 Purity criteria for food emulsifiers 317 14.5 Labelling of food emulsifiers 317 References 319 15 Analysis of Emulsifiers 321Lars Preuss Nielsen 15.1 Introduction 321 15.2 Official methods 321 15.2.1 Wet chemical methods 322 15.2.2 Physical methods 324 15.2.3 Instrumental methods 326 15.3 Advanced analytics 328 15.3.1 Molecular spectroscopy 329 15.3.2 Chromatography 331 15.3.3 Mass spectrometry 332 15.4 Choosing the analytical technique 333 References 334 Index 337