List of Figures ix

Acknowledgments xix

Introduction xxi

Part I Getting to Sounds 1

1 The Speech System and Basic Anatomy 3

1.1 The Speech Chain 3

1.1.1 The speech production chain 6

1.2 The Building Blocks of Articulatory Phonetics 7

1.2.1 Materials in the body 9

1.3 The Tools of Articulatory Phonetics 10

Exercises 12

References 13

2 Where It All Starts: The Central Nervous System 15

2.1 The Basic Units of the Nervous System 15

2.1.1 The action potential: how the nervous

system communicates 18

2.2 The Central Nervous System 19

2.2.1 Speech areas in the brain 22

2.3 Measuring the Brain: fMRI, PET, EEG, MEG, TMS 27

Exercises 30

References 31

3 From Thought to Movement: The Peripheral

Nervous System 33

3.1 The Peripheral Nervous System 33

3.1.1 Cranial nerves 34

3.1.2 Spinal nerves 36

3.2 How Muscles Move 38

3.3 Measuring Muscles: EMG 41

3.3.1 The speed of thought to movement 43

Exercises 45

References 46

4 From Movement to Flow: Respiration 47

4.1 Breathing Basics 47

4.1.1 Two principles for respiration 47

4.1.2 Lung volumes 48

4.1.3 Measuring lung volume 50

4.2 The Anatomy of Breathing 51

4.2.1 The lungs 51

4.2.2 The hard parts: bones and cartilages

of respiration 53

4.2.3 Passive forces of breathing 57

4.2.4 Inspiratory muscles 57

4.2.5 Expiratory muscles 61

4.2.6 The respiratory cycle revisited 64

4.3 Measuring Airfl ow and Pressure:

Pneumotachograph 66

4.4 Sounds 67

4.4.1 /h/ 67

4.4.2 Pitch and loudness 68

Exercises 68

References 69

5 From Flow to Sound 71

5.1 Intrinsic Laryngeal Anatomy 71

5.1.1 The hard parts 72

5.1.2 Intrinsic laryngeal muscles 74

5.2 Sounds: The Voice 78

5.2.1 Modal phonation 78

5.2.2 Theories of modal phonation 80

5.2.3 Pitch control 86

5.2.4 Voicelessness 89

5.3 Measuring the Vocal Folds: EGG 90

Exercises 91

References 94

Part II Articulating Sounds 97

6 Articulating Laryngeal Sounds 99

6.1 Extrinsic Laryngeal Anatomy 100

6.1.1 The hard parts 100

6.1.2 Extrinsic laryngeal muscles 101

6.2 Sounds 106

6.2.1 Non-modal phonation types 106

6.2.2 The glottalic airstream mechanism 114

6.3 Measuring Laryngeal Articulations: Endoscopy 118

Exercises 120

References 122

7 Articulating Velic Sounds 125

7.1 Anatomy of the Velum 125

7.1.1 The hard parts 126

7.1.2 Muscles of the velum 129

7.2 Sounds 134

7.2.1 The oral-nasal distinction: more on the VPP 134

7.2.2 Uvular constrictions: the oropharyngeal isthmus 136

7.3 Measuring the Velum: X-ray Video 138

Exercises 140

References 141

8 Articulating Vowels 143

8.1 The Jaw and Extrinsic Tongue Muscles 146

8.1.1 The hard parts 146

8.1.2 Jaw muscles 148

8.1.3 Extrinsic tongue muscles 152

8.2 Sounds: Vowels 154

8.2.1 High front vowels 156

8.2.2 High back vowels 156

8.2.3 Low vowels 157

8.2.4 ATR and RTR 159

8.3 Measuring Vowels: Ultrasound 160

Exercises 163

References 164

9 Articulating Lingual Consonants 167

9.1 The Intrinsic Tongue Muscles 167

9.1.1 The transversus and verticalis muscles 168

9.1.2 The longitudinal muscles 170

9.2 Sounds: Lingual Consonants 171

9.2.1 Degrees of constriction and tongue bracing 171

9.2.2 Locations of constriction 176

9.3 Measuring Lingual Consonants: Palatography and

Linguography 180

Exercises 182

References 186

10 Articulating Labial Sounds 189

10.1 Muscles of the Lips and Face 192

10.1.1 The amazing OO 192

10.1.2 Other lip and face muscles 194

10.2 Sounds: Making Sense of [labial] 196

10.3 Measuring the Lips and Face: Point Tracking and Video 198

Exercises 202

References 203

11 Putting Articulations Together 205

11.1 Coordinating Movements 205

11.1.1 Context-sensitive models 207

11.1.2 Context-invariant models 207

11.1.3 Unifying theories 209

11.2 Coordinating Complex Sounds 210

11.2.1 Lingual-lingual sounds 211

11.2.2 Other complex sounds 216

11.3 Coarticulation 217

11.3.1 Articulatory overlap 218

11.3.2 Articulatory confl ict 219

11.3.3 Modeling coarticulation 220

11.4 Measuring the Whole Vocal Tract: Tomography 221

Exercises 225

References 225

Abbreviations Used in this Book 229

Muscles with Innervation, Origin, and Insertion 233

Index 243