Acknowledgments xiii

About the Companion Website xv

1 Historical Development 1

1.1 Introduction 1

1.2 The Advent of Instrument Flight 2

1.3 Development of Flight Instruments Based on Air Pressure 5

1.3.1 The Altimeter 5

1.3.2 The Vertical Speed Indicator (Variometer) 7

1.3.3 The Airspeed Indicator 8

1.4 Development of Flight Instruments Based on Gyroscopes 10

1.5 Development of Aircraft Voice Communications 12

1.6 Development of Aircraft Digital Communications 19

1.6.1 Communication Via Satellite (SATCOM) 19

1.6.2 Secondary Surveillance Radar (SSR) and Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance System (TCAS) 20

1.6.3 Aircraft Communications Addressing and Reporting System (ACARS) 23

1.7 Development of Radio Navigation 24

1.7.1 Radio Direction Finding 24

1.7.2 Guided Radio Beam Navigation 28

1.7.3 VHF/UHF Radio Navigation Systems 31

1.8 Area and Global Navigation Systems 40

1.8.1 Hyperbolic Navigation 40

1.8.2 Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) 44

1.8.3 Inertial Navigation Systems (INS) 48

1.8.4 Combining Systems: Performance-Based Navigation (PBN) and Required Navigation Performance (RNP) 53

1.9 Development of Auto Flight Control Systems 57

References 65

2 Pressure Instruments 67

2.1 Layers of the Atmosphere 67

2.2 The International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) 68

2.3 Nonstandard Atmospheres 72

2.4 Dynamic Pressure and the Bernoulli Equation 73

2.5 Definition of Sea Level and Elevation 77

2.6 Definition of Height, Altitude, and Flight Level 77

2.7 Pitot and Static Sources 80

2.8 Pressure Altimeter 81

2.8.1 Basic Principles of the Pressure Altimeter 81

2.8.2 Altimeter Display 86

2.8.3 Servo Altimeter 89

2.8.4 Altimeter with Digital Encoder 91

2.9 Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI) 93

2.9.1 Instantaneous Vertical Speed Indicator (IVSI) 98

2.10 Airspeed Indicator 100

2.11 Mach Meter 105

2.11.1 Critical Mach Number 105

2.11.2 Direct-Reading Mach Meter 107

2.12 OAT Probe 109

2.12.1 Ram Rise and Total Air Temperature 109

2.12.2 Direct-Reading Thermometer for Low Airspeeds 110

2.12.3 Resistance Thermometer Probes 110

2.13 Pitot-Static Systems 113

2.14 Air Data Computer (ADC) 117

2.14.1 Altitude and Vertical Speed 117

2.14.2 TAS and Mach number in Compressible Flow 117

2.14.3 ADC Inputs and Outputs 119

Problems 121

References 121

3 Gyroscopic and Magnetic Instruments 123

3.1 Mechanical Gyroscopes and Instruments 123

3.1.1 Basic Properties of Mechanical Gyroscopes 123

3.1.2 Gyroscope Wander 124

3.1.3 Labeling of Aircraft Axes and Rotations 125

3.1.4 Types of Gyroscope 126

3.1.5 Power for Gyroscopic Instruments 126

3.1.6 Direction Indicator (DI) 127

3.1.7 Earth Rate 129

3.1.8 Transport Wander 131

3.1.9 Attitude Indicator (AI) 134

3.1.10 Turn and Slip Indicator and Turn Coordinator 138

3.2 Solid-State Gyroscopes 141

3.2.1 The Advantages of Solid-State Gyroscopes 141

3.2.2 The Sagnac Effect 141

3.2.3 Fiber-Optic Gyroscope 142

3.2.4 Ring Laser Gyroscope 143

3.2.5 Micro-Electromechanical System (MEMS) Gyroscopes 146

3.2.6 MEMS Accelerometers 148

3.3 Magnetic Compass 149

3.3.1