Ferric C. Fang, MD, is a Professor of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, Microbiology, Medicine, and Global Health at the University of Washington School of Medicine, Director of the Clinical Microbiology Laboratory at Harborview Medical Center, and a former Editor-in-Chief of Infection and Immunity.

Arturo Casadevall, MD, PhD, is a Bloomberg Distinguished Professor and Chair of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology at the Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, a Professor of Medicine at the Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, and the Editor-in-Chief of mBio.

List of Boxes, Figures, and Tables ix

Preface xiii

Acknowledgments xvii

About the Authors xix

Section I Definitions of Science 1

Chapter 1 What Is Science? 3

We discuss the epistemological origins of science; features of the scientific method; and characteristics to distinguish science from intuition, belief, or pseudoscience.

Chapter 2 Descriptive Science 15

We argue that although "descriptive" is an adjective often used pejoratively, description plays a vital role in science and is essential for the generation and testing of hypotheses.

Chapter 3 Mechanistic Science 23

We explain that the adjective "mechanistic" is often applied to explanatory science, but its meaning is relative.

Chapter 4 Reductionistic and Holistic Science 33

We show that reductionism and holism are two ends of a scientific spectrum that are often viewed in opposition but are actually complementary and essential.

Section II Good Science 41

Chapter 5 Elegant Science 43

We consider what scientists mean when they refer to an "elegant" idea or experiment and how the quest for elegance can mislead.

Chapter 6 Rigorous Science 51

We provide a how-to guide for performing rigorous research that produces reliable results.

Chapter 7 Reproducible Science 61

We explore why reproducibility is prized in science and why it is so elusive.

Chapter 8 Important Science 73

We propose criteria to assess whether a scientific finding or line of inquiry is important.

Chapter 9 Historical Science 85

We discuss why the history of a scientific discovery is important even though it may be neglected or distorted by scientists.

Chapter 10 Specialized Science 95

We examine the value and risk of specialization in science, reasons for the emergence of scientific fields, and the growing importance of interdisciplinary teams in contemporary research.

Chapter 11 Revolutionary Science 115

We ask what constitutes a revolution in science and consider whether revolutions truly replace older ideas or rather build upon them.

Chapter 12 Translational Science 131

We probe the interface between basic and applied research that translates into useful applications and question whether society can or should favor one type of science over the other.

Chapter 13 Moonshot Science 141

We review past and present major targeted investments in science akin to the moonshot program and the determinants of their success.

Chapter 14 Serendipitous Science 149

We consider the importance of undirected exploration and the many scientific discoveries that were wholly unanticipated.

Section III Bad Science 155

Chapter 15 Unequal Science 157

We reflect on how science is rife with inequality and inequity, but a diverse scientific workforce will be critically important for science's future.

Chapter 16 Pseudoscience 171

We explain that the power of science to persuade has led some to mimic scientific methods and language in the service of false or misguided beliefs.

Chapter 17 Duplicated Science 177

We demonstrate that inappropriate image duplication resulting from sloppiness or misconduct is surprisingly common in the scientific literature.

Chapter 18 Fraudulent Science 195

We show that in addition to fabrication, falsification, and plagiarism, a variety of poor research practices collectively undermine the reliability of the research enterprise and are symptomatic of a dysfunctional research culture in which incentives are misaligned with goals.

Chapter 19 Dismal Science 203

We argue that the economics of science comprises a complex web of incentives and disincentives, as scientists compete not only for funding and jobs, but also for prestige.

Chapter 20 Competitive Science 217

We consider that competition is conventionally viewed as a motivator for scientists but can have a negative impact on resource sharing, integrity, and creativity.

Chapter 21 Prized Science 229

We observe that prizes are highly sought in science but epitomize the winner-take-all economics of science that unfairly allocates credit and distorts scientific history.

Chapter 22 Rejected Science 251

We examine the essential role of peer review in science, which means that rejection of ideas, papers, and grant applications is commonplace.

Chapter 23 Unfunded Science 263

We conclude that a persistent imbalance between the research workforce and available resources has created a preoccupation with funding, a capricious peer review system, and researcher frustration, but there may be a solution.

Chapter 24 Retracted Science 285

We show how a study of retracted scientific publications can provide a window into the scientific enterprise and the underlying causes of fraud and error.

Chapter 25 Erroneous Science 303

We explain how the analysis of errors can play a vital role in identifying weaknesses in how science is done and how it can be improved.

Chapter 26 Impacted Science 319

We suggest that competition among scientists for funding and jobs has driven a preoccupation with prestigious publications and the highly flawed use of journal impact factor as a surrogate measure of publication quality.

Chapter 27 Risky Science 341

We consider the responsibility of scientists to safeguard society from potential hazards of research and whether some types of research should be off-limits, including a balanced examination of "gain-of-function" experiments in which microbes are enhanced to study a scientific question.

Chapter 28 Authoritarian Science 353

We review several examples that illustrate the danger of deference to authority in science.

Chapter 29 Deplorable Science 361

We review classic examples in which science was used in an immoral manner to identify their common features and highlight important concerns when considering human experimentation.

Section IV Future Science 371

Chapter 30 Plague Science 373

We reflect on the triumphs and failures of science during the COVID-19 pandemic and why countries with the strongest research programs did not always fare the best.

Chapter 31 Reforming Science 389

We discuss the methodological, cultural, and structural reforms that the scientific enterprise should consider as it faces the future and attempts to make scientific results and the scientific literature more reliable.

Section V Afterword 415

Chapter 32 Diseased Science 417

We close by taking a lighthearted look at the foibles and afflictions of scientists.

References 421

Index 513