Summary of Research Examples

Preface

1 Scientific Thinking in Psychology

Why Take This Course?

Ways of Knowing

Authority

Use of Reason

Empiricism

The Ways of Knowing and Science

Science as a Way of Knowing

Science Assumes Determinism

Science Makes Systematic Observations

Science Produces Public Knowledge

Box 1.1: ORIGINS-A Taste of Introspection

Science Produces Data?]Based Conclusions

Science Produces Tentative Conclusions

Science Asks Answerable Questions

Science Develops Theories That Can Be Falsified

Psychological Science and Pseudoscience

Recognizing Pseudoscience

Associates with True Science

Box 1.2: CLASSIC STUDIES-Falsifying Phrenology

Relies on Anecdotal Evidence

Sidesteps the Falsification Requirement

Reduce Complex Phenomena to Overly Simplistic Concepts

The Goals of Research in Psychology

Describe

Predict

Explain

Apply

A Passion for Research in Psychology

Eleanor Gibson (1910-2002)

B. F. Skinner (1904-1990)

2 Ethics in Psychological Research

Box 2.1: CLASSIC STUDIES-Infants at Risk

Developing a Code of Ethics for Psychological Science

Ethical Guidelines for Research with Humans

Weighing Benefits and Costs: The Role of the IRB

Informed Consent and Deception in Research

Box 2.2: ETHICS-Historical Problems with Informed Consent

Informed Consent and Special Populations

Use of Deception

Treating Participants Well

Research Ethics and the Internet

Ethical Guidelines for Research with Animals

Animal Rights

Box 2.3: ORIGINS-Antivivisection and the APA

Using Animals in Psychological Research

The APA Code for Animal Research

Justifying the Study

Caring for the Animals

Using Animals for Educational Purposes

Scientific Fraud

Data Falsification

3 Developing Ideas for Research in Psychology

Varieties of Psychological Research

The Goals: Basic versus Applied Research

The Setting: Laboratory versus Field Research

Research Example 1-Combining Laboratory and Field Studies

The Data: Quantitative versus Qualitative Research

Asking Empirical Questions

Operational Definitions

Developing Research from Observations of Behavior and Serendipity

Box 3.1: ORIGINS-Serendipity and Edge Detectors

Developing Research from Theory

The Nature of Theory

The Relationship between Theory and Research

Attributes of Good Theories

Falsification

Box 3.2: CLASSIC STUDIES-Falsification and Der Kluge Hans

Parsimony

Common Misunderstandings about Theory

Developing Research from Other Research

Research Teams and the "What's Next?" Question

Research Example 2 - "What's Next?"

Replication

Box 3.3: ETHICS-Questionable Research Practices and Replication Remedies

Creative Thinking in Science

Reviewing the Literature

Computerized Database Searches

Search Tips

Search Results

4 Sampling, Measurement, and Hypothesis Testing

Who to Measure-Sampling Procedures

Probability Sampling

Random Sampling

Stratified Sampling

Cluster Sampling

Nonprobability Sampling

What to Measure-Varieties of Behavior

Developing Measures from Constructs

Research Example 3-Testing Constructs Using Habituation

Research Example 4-Testing Constructs Using Reaction Time

Box 4.1: ORIGINS-Reaction Time: From Mental Chronometry to Mental Rotation

Evaluating Measures

Reliability

Validity

Research Example 5-Construct Validity

Reliability and Validity

Scales of Measurement

Nominal Scales

Ordinal Scales

Interval Scales

Box 4.2: CLASSIC STUDIES-Measuring Somatotypes on an Interval Scale: Hoping for 4-4-4

Ratio Scales

Statistical Analysis

Descriptive and Inferential Statistics

Descriptive Statistics

Box 4.3: ETHICS-Statistics that Mislead

Inferential Statistics

Null Hypothesis Significance Testing

Type I and Type II Errors

Interpreting Failures to Reject H0

Beyond Null Hypothesis Significance Testing

Effect Size

Confidence Intervals

Power

5 Introduction to Experimental Research

Essential Features of Experimental Research

Box 5.1: ORIGINS-John Stuart Mill and the Rules of Inductive Logic

Establishing Independent Variables

Varieties of Manipulated Independent Variables

Control Groups

Research Example 6-Experimental and Control Groups

Controlling Extraneous Variables

Measuring Dependent Variables

Subject Variables

Research Example 7-Using Subject Variables

Drawing Conclusions When Using Subject Variables

Box 5.2: CLASSIC STUDIES-Bobo Dolls and Aggression

The Validity of Experimental Research

Statistical Conclusion Validity

Construct Validity

External Validity

Other Populations

Box 5.3: ETHICS-Recruiting Participants: Everyone's in the Pool

Other Environments

Other Times

A Note of Caution about External Validity

Internal Validity

Threats to Internal Validity

Studies Extending Over Time

History and Maturation

Regression to the Mean

Testing and Instrumentation

Participant Problems

Subject Selection Effects

Attrition

A Final Note on Internal Validity, Confounding, and External Validity

6 Methodological Control in Experimental Research

Between?]Subjects Designs

Creating Equivalent Groups

Random Assignment

Matching

Within?]Subjects Designs

Controlling Order Effects

Testing Once per Condition

Complete Counterbalancing

Partial Counterbalancing

Testing More than Once per Condition

Reverse Counterbalancing

Block Randomization

Research Example 8-Counterbalancing with Block Randomization

Methodological Control in Developmental Research

Box 6.1: CLASSIC STUDIES-The Record for Repeated Measures

Controlling for the Effects of Bias

Experimenter Bias

Controlling for Experimenter Bias

Research Example 9-Using a Double Blind Procedure

Participant Bias

Box 6.2: ORIGINS-Productivity at Western Electric

Research Example 10-Demand Characteristics

Controlling for Participant Bias

Box 6.3: ETHICS-Research Participants Have Responsibilities Too

7 Experimental Design I: Single?]Factor Designs

Single Factor-Two Levels

Between?]Subjects, Single?]Factor Designs

Research Example 11-Two-Level Independent Groups Design

Research Example 12- Two-Level Matched Groups Design

Research Example 13- Two-Level Ex Post Facto Design

Within?]Subjects, Single?]Factor Designs

Box 7.1: CLASSIC STUDIES-Psychology's Most Widely Replicated Finding?

Research Example 14-Two-Level Repeated Measures Design

Single Factor-More Than Two Levels

Between?]Subjects, Multilevel Designs

Research Example 15-Multilevel Independent Groups Design

Within?]Subjects, Multilevel Designs

Research Example 16-Multilevel Repeated Measures Design

Analyzing Data from Single?]Factor Designs

Presenting the Data

Types of Graphs

Box 7.2: ORIGINS-The Ebbinghaus Forgetting Curve

Analyzing the Data

Statistics for Single-Factor, Two-Level Designs

Statistics for Single-Factor, Two-Level Designs

Special?]Purpose Control Group Designs

Placebo Control Group Designs

Wait List Control Group Designs

Box 7.3: ETHICS-Who's in the Control Group?

Research Example 17-Using Both Placebo and Wait List Control Groups

Yoked Control Group Designs

Research Example 18-A Yoked Control Group

8 Experimental Design II: Factorial Designs

Essentials of Factorial Designs

Identifying Factorial Designs

Outcomes-Main Effects and Interactions

Main Effects

Research Example 19-Main Effects

Interactions

Research Example 20-An Interaction with No Main Effects

Interactions Sometimes Trump Main Effects

Combinations of Main Effects and Interactions

Creating Graphs for the Results of Factorial Designs

Box 8.1: CLASSIC STUDIES-To Sleep, Perchance to Recall

Varieties of Factorial Designs

Mixed Factorial Designs

Research Example 21-A Mixed Factorial with Counterbalancing

Research Example 22-A Mixed Factorial without Counterbalancing

Factorials with Subject and Manipulated Variables: P × E Designs

Research Example 23-A Factorial Design with a P × E Interaction

Research Example 24-A Mixed P × E Factorial with Two Main Effects

Recruiting Participants for Factorial Designs

Box 8.2: ETHICS-On Being a Competent and Ethical Researcher

Analyzing Data from Factorial Designs

Box 8.3: ORIGINS-Factorials Down on the Farm

9 Non?]Experimental Design I: Survey Methods

Survey Research

Box 9.1: ORIGINS-Creating the "Questionary"

Sampling Issues in Survey Research

Surveys versus Psychological Assessment

Creating an Effective Survey

Types of Survey Questions or Statements

Assessing Memory and Knowledge

Adding Demographic Information

A Key Problem: Survey Wording

Collecting Survey Data

In-Person Interviews

Mailed Written Surveys