Eric van Steen is a professor in the Department of Chemical Engineering at the University of Cape Town (UCT), South Africa, where he holds the South African Research Chair in Reaction Engineering (SARChI). He holds an MSc from Eindhoven University of Technology in the Netherlands, and a Dr.-Ing. from Karlsruhe University of Technology in Germany. He is a Fellow of the South African Institute of Chemical Engineering and of the South African Academy of Engineering. His commitment to student development was recognised when he received the NRF Champion of Research Capacity Development and Transformation Award in 2024.

Prof. van Steen is part of the Catalysis Institute, in the Department of Chemical Engineering at the University of Cape Town, where the focus is on the development of novel materials and processes towards a sustainable society. His specific research focuses on heterogeneous catalysis, particularly applying principles in heterogeneous catalysis to the areas of renewable energy like CO/CO2 hydrogenation, and photo-catalytic water splitting, but also in alternative ways to obtain building blocks for the chemical industry using the selective oxidation of methane.

Nicholas S. Featherstone holds a [...]. (Chemical) from the University of Cape Town and is currently a lecturer in the Department of Chemical Engineering at the University of Cape Town, South Africa. He is part of the Catalysis Institute, in the Department of Chemical Engineering at the University of Cape Town, where the focus of his research is on the direct hydrogenation of CO2 to liquid fuels.

Linda H. Callanan holds a [...]. (Eng.) (Chemical) and a Ph.D. from the University of Cape Town. After studying, she held a postdoctoral position in the Department of Chemical Technology II (Lehrstuhl für Technische Chemie II) at the Technische Universität München, Germany. She was then a senior lecturer at the Department of Chemical Engineering, Stellenbosch University, South Africa. Her research focus is on reaction kinetics, particularly in the field of heterogeneous catalysis.

About the Authors xiii

Preface xv

Nomenclature xvii

1 Setting the Energy Scene 1

1.1 Introduction 1

1.2 Energy Carriers 5

1.3 Current Usage of Energy Carriers 12

1.4 Outlook 17

References 21

2 Power Generation - Harnessing Renewable Energy 25

2.1 Introduction 25

2.2 Thermal Power Generation Processes 28

2.3 Power Generation from Geothermal Energy 39

2.4 Hydropower 42

2.5 Wind Energy 46

2.6 Solar Power 53

2.7 The Grid 69

2.8 Outlook 71

References 74

3 Dealing with Intermittency - Storing Electric Power 85

3.1 Introduction 85

3.2 Pumped Hydro-Energy Storage (PHES) 86

3.3 Compressed Air Energy Storage (CAES) 88

3.4 Flywheel 94

3.5 Batteries 95

3.6 Flow Batteries 111

3.7 Supercapacitors 119

3.8 Outlook 121

References 126

4 Heating 135

4.1 Introduction 135

4.2 Heat Pumps 139

4.3 Resistive Heaters 146

4.4 Furnaces 151

4.5 Heat Integration 170

4.6 Heat Storage 174

4.7 Outlook 177

References 178

5 Chemical Storage of Energy 189

5.1 Power-to-X Concept 189

5.2 Hydrogen as an Energy Carrier 190

5.3 Ammonia 236

5.4 Liquid Organic Hydrogen Carriers - LOHCs 257

5.7 Outlook 285

References 289

6 Basic Industries 305

6.1 Introduction to the Basic Industries 305

6.2 Cement 307

6.3 Steel 325

6.4 Sulphuric Acid 349

6.5 Sodium Hydroxide and Hydrochloric Acid - The Chlor-Alkali Process 358

6.6 General Outlook for the Basic Industries 367

References 369

7 Manufacture of Materials 385

7.1 Introduction 385

7.2 Aluminium 387

7.3 Copper 398

7.4 Titanium and Titania 410

7.5 Silicon 418

7.6 Glass 434

7.7 Paper and Pulp Manufacturing 446

7.8 Outlook for Industrial Manufacture of Materials 459

References 463

8 Consumer Goods Industries 483

8.1 Overview of Consumer Goods Industries 483

8.2 Industrial Baking 486

8.3 Canning and Related Processes 496

8.4 Pharmaceutical Drugs 504

8.5 Wastewater Treatment 516

8.6 Outlook for Energy in the Consumer Goods Industry 529

References 530

9 General Outlook 543

9.1 Drivers to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions 544

9.2 Accounting for Greenhouse Gas Emissions 548

9.3 Electrification 551

9.4 Alternative Fuels 555

9.5 Carbon Capture and Storage 557

9.6 New Opportunities 560

9.7 Concluding Remarks 562

References 563

Index 569