1 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE HUMAN BODY 1

1.1 Anatomy Defined 2

1.2 Levels of Body Organization and Body Systems 3

1.3 Life Processes 9

1.4 Basic Anatomical Terminology 9

Anatomical Position 9

Regional Names 9

Planes and Sections 10

1.5 Body Cavities 14

Thoracic and Abdominal Cavity Membranes 15

1.6 Abdominopelvic Regions and Quadrants 18

1.7 The Human Body and Disease 19

1.8 Aging 20

1.9 Medical Imaging 20

1.10 Measuring the Human Body 23

Chapter Review and Resource Summary 23 / Critical Thinking Questions 25 / Answers to Figure Questions 25

2 CELLS 26

2.1 A Generalized Cell 27

2.2 The Plasma Membrane 28

Structure of the Membrane 28

Functions of Membrane Proteins 29

Membrane Permeability 29

Transport Across the Plasma Membrane 29

Kinetic Energy Transport 30 / Transport by Transporter Proteins 30 / Transport in Vesicles 30

2.3 Cytoplasm 33

Cytosol 33

Organelles 34

Centrosome 35 / Cilia and Flagella 35 / Ribosomes 35 / Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) 37 / Golgi Complex 37 / Lysosomes 39 / Peroxisomes 40 / Proteasomes 40 / Mitochondria 40

2.4 Nucleus 42

2.5 Cell Division 43

Somatic Cell Division 45

Interphase 45

Mitotic Phase 45

Control of Cell Destiny 47

Reproductive Cell Division 48

Meiosis 48

2.6 Cellular Diversity 51

2.7 Aging and Cells 52

Key Medical Terms Associated with Cells 54 / Chapter Review and Resource Summary 54 / Critical Thinking Questions 56 / Answers to Figure Questions 57

3 TISSUES 58

3.1 Types of Tissues 59

3.2 Cell Junctions 60

Tight Junctions 61

Adherens Junctions 61

Desmosomes 61

Hemidesmosomes 61

Gap Junctions 61

3.3 Comparison Between Epithelial and Connective Tissues 61

3.4 Epithelial Tissue 62

Classification of Surface Epithelium 63

Surface Epithelium 64

Glandular Epithelium 71

Structural Classification of Exocrine Glands 72 / Functional Classification of Exocrine Glands 72

3.5 Connective Tissue 73

General Features of Connective Tissue 73

Connective Tissue Cells 73

Connective Tissue Extracellular Matrix 75

Ground Substance 75 / Fibers 75

Classification of Connective Tissue 76

Embryonic Connective Tissue 76

Mature Connective Tissue 77

Connective Tissue Proper 77

Supporting Connective Tissue 81

Liquid Connective Tissue 84

3.6 Membranes 85

Epithelial Membranes 85

Mucous Membranes 85 / Serous Membranes 85 / Cutaneous Membrane 87

Synovial Membranes 87

3.7 Muscular Tissue 87

3.8 Nervous Tissue 89

3.9 Aging and Tissues 89

Key Medical Terms Associated with Tissues 90 / Chapter Review and Resource Summary 90 / Critical Thinking Questions 92 / Answers to Figure Questions 93

4 DEVELOPMENT 94

4.1 Principles of Development 95

4.2 Embryonic Period 96

First Week of Development 96

Fertilization 96 / Cleavage of the Zygote 97 / Blastocyst Formation 97 / Implantation 98

Second Week of Development 100

Development of the Trophoblast 100 / Development of the Bilaminar Embryonic Disc 100 / Development of the Amnion 100 / Development of the Yolk Sac 100

Development of Sinusoids 102 / Development of the Extraembryonic Coelom 102 / Development of the Chorion 102

Third Week of Development 102

Gastrulation 102 / Neurulation 104 / Development of Somites 106 / Development of the Intraembryonic Coelom 106 / Development of the Cardiovascular System 106 / Development of the Chorionic Villi and Placenta 106

Fourth Week of Development 108

Fifth Through Eighth Weeks of Development 110

4.3 Fetal Period 111

4.4 Maternal Changes During Pregnancy 113

4.5 Labor 114

Key Medical Terms Associated with Development 115 /Chapter Review and Resource Summary 116 / CriticalThinkingQuestions 117 / Answers to Figure Questions 117

5 THE INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM 118

5.1 Structure of the Skin 119

Epidermis 119

Stratum Basale 120 / Stratum Spinosum 122 / Stratum Granulosum 122 / Stratum Lucidum 123 / Stratum Corneum 123 / Keratinization and Growth of the Epidermis 123

Dermis 123

Blood Supply of the Integumentary System 125

The Structural Basis of Skin Color 125 / Tattooing and Body Piercing 126

Subcutaneous Layer or Hypodermis 126

5.2 Accessory Structures of the Skin 127

Hair 127

Anatomy of a Hair 128 / Hair Growth 129 / Types of Hairs 130 / Hair Color 130

Skin Glands 130

Sebaceous Glands 130 / Sudoriferous Glands 131 / Ceruminous Glands 132

Nails 132

5.3 Types of Skin 134

5.4 Functions of the Skin 135

5.5 Development of the Integumentary System 136

5.6 Aging and the Integumentary System 138

Key Medical Terms Associated with the Integumentary System 139 / Chapter Review and Resource Summary 140 / Critical Thinking Questions 141 / Answers to Figure Questions 141

6 BONE TISSUE 142

6.1 Functions of Bone and the Skeletal System 143

6.2 Types of Bones 143

6.3 Anatomy of a Bone 144

6.4 Bone Surface Markings 145

6.5 Histology of Bone Tissue 146

Compact Bone Tissue 148

Spongy Bone Tissue 149

6.6 Blood and Nerve Supply of Bone 150

6.7 Bone Formation 151

Initial Bone Formation in an Embryo and Fetus 151

Intramembranous Ossification 151

Endochondral Ossification 153

Bone Growth During Infancy, Childhood, and Adolescence 154

Growth in Length 154 / Growth in Thickness 155

Remodeling of Bone 155

6.8 Fractures 158

6.9 Exercise and Bone Tissue 161

6.10 Aging and Bone Tissue 161

6.11 Factors Affecting Bone Growth 161

Key Medical Terms Associated with Bone Tissue 163 / Chapter Review and Resource Summary 163 / Critical Thinking Questions 165 / Answers to Figure Questions 165

7 THE SKELETAL SYSTEM: THE AXIAL SKELETON 166

7.1 Divisions of the Skeletal System 167

7.2 Skull 169

General Features and Functions 169

Nasal Septum 188

Orbits 188

Foramina 190

Unique Features of the Skull 190

Sutures 190 / Paranasal Sinuses 191 / Fontanels 191

Cranial Fossae 192

Age-related Changes in the Skull 194

Sexual Differences in the Skull 195

7.3 Hyoid Bone 196

7.4 Vertebral Column 197

Normal Curves of the Vertebral Column 197

Intervertebral Discs 197

Parts of a Typical Vertebra 199

Vertebral Body 199 / Vertebral Arch 199 / Processes 200

Regions of the Vertebral Column 201

Age-related Changes in the Vertebral Column 201

7.5 Thorax 210

Key Medical Terms Associated with the Axial Skeleton 214 / Chapter Review and Resource Summary 214 / Critical Thinking Questions 215 / Answers to Figure Questions 215

8 THE SKELETAL SYSTEM: THE APPENDICULAR SKELETON 216

8.1 Skeleton of the Upper Limb 217

8.2 Skeleton of the Lower Limb 230

8.3 False and True Pelves 235

8.4 Comparison of Female and Male Pelves 236

8.5 Comparison of Pectoral and Pelvic Girdles 236

8.6 Development of the Skeletal System 246

Key Medical Terms Associated with Appendicular Skeleton 248 / Chapter Review and Resource Summary 248 / Critical Thinking Questions 249 / Answers to Figure Questions 249

9 JOINTS 250

9.1 Joint Classifications 251

Ligaments 251

9.2 Fibrous Joints 252

Sutures 252

Syndesmoses 253

Interosseous Membranes 253

9.3 Cartilaginous Joints 253

Synchondroses 253

Symphyses 253

Epiphyseal Cartilages 253

9.4 Synovial Joints 254

Structure of Synovial Joints 254

Articular Capsule 254 / Synovial Fluid 255 / Accessory Ligaments, Articular Discs, and Labra 255 / Nerve and Blood Supply 256

Bursae and Tendon Sheaths 256

9.5 Types of Movements at Synovial Joints 256

Gliding 256

Angular Movements 257

Flexion, Extension, Lateral Flexion, and Hyperextension 257 / Abduction, Adduction, and Circumduction 258

Rotation 258

Special Movements 259

9.6 Types of Synovial Joints 261

Plane Joints 261

Hinge Joints 261

Pivot Joints 261

Condyloid Joints 261

Saddle Joints 263

Ball-and-Socket Joints 263

9.7 Factors Affecting Contact and Range of Motion at Synovial Joints 264

9.8 Selected Joints of the Body 265

9.9 Aging and Joints 281

Key Medical Terms Associated with Joints 283 / Chapter Review and Resource Summary 283 / Critical Thinking Questions 284 / Answers to Figure Questions 285

10 MUSCULAR TISSUE 286

10.1 Overview of Muscular Tissue 287

Types of Muscular Tissue 287

Functions of Muscular Tissue 287

Properties of Muscular Tissue 287

10.2 Skeletal Muscle Tissue Structure 288

Gross Anatomy of a Skeletal Muscle 288

Connective Tissue Coverings 288

Nerve and Blood Supply 290

Microscopic Anatomy of a Skeletal Muscle Fiber (Cell) 290

Sarcolemma, T Tubules, and...