Benjamin W. Fortson IV is Associate Professor of Greek and Latin Language, Literature, and Historical Linguistics in the Department of Classical Studies at the University of Michigan.

List of Illustrations xi

Preface xii

Preface to the Second Edition xvi

Acknowledgments xvii

Guide to the Reader xix

1 Introduction: The Comparative Method and the Indo-European Family 1

The Study of Language Relationships and the Comparative Method (§§1.1-12) 1

Indo-European Historical Linguistics (§§1.13-19) 8

Conclusion (§§1.20-22) 14

For Further Reading 15

For Review 16

Exercises 16

2 Proto-Indo-European Culture and Archaeology 18

Introduction (§§2.1-2) 18

Society (§§2.3-16) 19

Religion, Ritual, and Myth (§§2.17-36) 25

Poetics (§§2.37-45) 32

Personal Names (§§2.46-49) 38

Archaeology and the PIE Homeland Question (§§2.50-73) 39

For Further Reading 49

For Review 50

Exercises 50

3 Proto-Indo-European Phonology 53

Introduction (§3.1) 53

Consonants (§§3.2-25) 53

Vowels (§§3.26-32) 66

Phonological Rules (§§3.33-44) 69

For Further Reading 72

For Review 73

Exercises 73

4 Proto-Indo-European Morphology: Introduction 75

The Root and Indo-European Morphophonemics (§4.1) 75

The Root (§§4.2-11) 76

Ablaut (§§4.12-19) 79

Morphological Categories of PIE (§§4.20-24) 83

For Further Reading 85

For Review 85

Exercises 85

5 The Verb 88

The Structure of the PIE Verb (§§5.1-10) 88

Personal Endings (§§5.11-18) 91

The Present Stem (§§5.19-44) 95

The Aorist Stem (§§5.45-50) 101

The Perfect Stem (§§5.51-53) 103

Moods (§§5.54-57) 105

Non-finite Verbal Formations and Other Topics (§§5.58-63) 107

For Further Reading 110

For Review 110

Exercises 110

6 The Noun 113

Introduction (§§6.1-3) 113

Athematic Nouns (§§6.4-42) 114

Thematic Nouns (§§6.43-67) 126

The Collective and the Feminine (§§6.68-71) 131

Adjectives (§§6.72-81) 134

Nominal Composition and Other Topics (§§6.82-87) 136

For Further Reading 137

For Review 138

Exercises 138

7 Pronouns and Other Parts of Speech 140

Pronouns: Introduction (§7.1) 140

Personal Pronouns (§§7.2-8) 140

Other Pronouns and the Pronominal Declension (§§7.9-14) 143

Numerals (§§7.15-22) 145

Adverbs (§§7.23-25) 147

Prepositions and Postpositions (§7.26) 148

Conjunctions and Interjections (§§7.27-30) 149

For Further Reading 150

Exercises 151

8 Proto-Indo-European Syntax 152

Introduction (§§8.1-5) 152

Syntax of the Phrase (§§8.6-11) 154

Syntax of the Clause (§§8.12-30) 156

Phrase and Sentence Prosody and the Interaction of Syntax and Phonology (§§8.31-36) 165

For Further Reading 168

For Review 168

Exercises 169

9 Anatolian 170

Introduction (§§9.1-4) 170

From PIE to Common Anatolian (§§9.5-14) 172

Hittite (§§9.15-44) 174

Luvian (§§9.45-58) 185

Palaic (§§9.59-61) 192

Lycian (§§9.62-70) 193

Lydian (§§9.71-75) 195

Carian, Pisidian, and Sidetic (§9.76) 198

For Further Reading 198

For Review 199

Exercises 199

PIE Vocabulary I: Man, Woman, Kinship 200

10 Indo-Iranian I: Indic 202

Introduction to Indo-Iranian (§§10.1-4) 202

From PIE to Indo-Iranian (§§10.5-19) 203

Indic (Indo-Aryan) (§§10.20-22) 206

Sanskrit (§§10.23-51) 207

Middle Indic (§§10.52-57) 219

Modern (New) Indo-Aryan (§§10.58-63) 221

For Further Reading 223

For Review 224

Exercises 224

PIE Vocabulary II: Animals 226

11 Indo-Iranian II: Iranian 227

Introduction (§§11.1-8) 227

Avestan (§§11.9-27) 228

Old Persian (§§11.28-36) 236

Middle and Modern Iranian (§§11.37-53) 241

For Further Reading 245

For Review 245

Exercises 246

PIE Vocabulary III: Food and Agriculture 247

12 Greek 248

Introduction (§§12.1-8) 248

From PIE to Greek (§§12.9-53) 252

Greek after the Classical Period (§§12.54-57) 263

The Philology of Homer and Its Pitfalls (§§12.58-67) 264

For Further Reading 270

For Review 271

Exercises 271

PIE Vocabulary IV: The Body 273

13 Italic 274

Introduction (§§13.1-5) 274

From PIE to Italic (§§13.6-23) 277

Latino-Faliscan (§13.24) 281

Latin (§§13.25-53) 282

Faliscan (§§13.54-55) 294

Sabellic (Osco-Umbrian) (§§13.56-66) 296

Umbrian (§§13.67-74) 298

South Picene (§§13.75-76) 300

Oscan (§§13.77-80) 302

Other Sabellic Languages (§13.81) 303

For Further Reading 304

For Review 304

Exercises 305

PIE Vocabulary V: Body Functions and States 307

14 Celtic 309

Introduction (§§14.1-3) 309

From PIE to Celtic (§§14.4-11) 310

Continental Celtic (§§14.12-19) 312

Insular Celtic (§§14.20-27) 316

Goidelic: Old Irish and Its Descendants (§§14.28-50) 319

Scottish Gaelic and Manx (§§14.51-52) 327

Brittonic (§§14.53-56) 328

Welsh (§§14.57-61) 329

Breton (§§14.62-68) 331

Cornish (§§14.69-72) 334

For Further Reading 335

For Review 335

Exercises 335

PIE Vocabulary VI: Natural Environment 337

15 Germanic 338

Introduction (§§15.1-4) 338

From PIE to Germanic (§§15.5-35) 339

Runic (§§15.36-39) 348

East Germanic (§15.40) 350

Gothic (§§15.41-48) 353

West Germanic (§§15.49-51) 356

Old English (§§15.52-64) 357

Middle and Modern English (§§15.65-69) 362

Old High German (§§15.70-81) 365

Old Saxon (§§15.82-85) 370

Dutch and Frisian (§§15.86-88) 371

North Germanic: Old Norse and Scandinavian (§§15.89-108) 372

For Further Reading 378

For Review 379

Exercises 379

PIE Vocabulary VII: Position and Motion 381

16 Armenian 382

Introduction (§§16.1-10) 382

From PIE to Classical Armenian (§§16.11-41) 385

Middle and Modern Armenian (§§16.42-47) 393

For Further Reading 397

For Review 397

Exercises 397

PIE Vocabulary VIII: Material Culture and Technology 399

17 Tocharian 400

Introduction (§§17.1-6) 400

From PIE to Tocharian (§§17.7-33) 402

For Further Reading 412

For Review 412

Exercises 412

PIE Vocabulary IX: Form and Size 413

18 Balto-Slavic 414

Introduction (§18.1) 414

From PIE to Balto-Slavic (§§18.2-18) 415

Slavic (§§18.19-39) 419

Old Church Slavonic (§§18.40-42) 426

Modern Slavic Languages (§§18.43-55) 428

Baltic (§§18.56-67) 432

Lithuanian (§§18.68-74) 435

Latvian (§§18.75-76) 439

Old Prussian (§§18.77-79) 440

For Further Reading 442

For Review 443

Exercises 443

PIE Vocabulary X: Time 445

19 Albanian 446

Introduction (§§19.1-5) 446

From PIE to Albanian (§§19.6-29) 448

For Further Reading 456

Exercises 457

PIE Vocabulary XI: Utterance 458

20 Fragmentary Languages 459

Introduction (§§20.1-2) 459

Phrygian (§§20.3-9) 460

Thracian (§§20.10-11) 463

Macedonian (§20.12) 464

Illyrian (§§20.13-15) 464

Venetic (§§20.16-20) 465

Messapic (§§20.21-22) 467

Sicel and Elymian (§20.23) 469

Lusitanian (§20.24) 469

For Further Reading 469

Exercises 470

PIE Vocabulary XII: Basic Physical Acts 471

Glossary 472

Bibliography 477

Subject Index 490

Word Index 510