John G. Hayes, PhD, MSEE, MBA, lectures at University College Cork, Ireland, and specialises in automotive, industrial and renewable energy systems and related power electronics, machines and electromagnetism. He previously worked in Southern California for ten years at General Motors' Hughes Aircraft subsidiary developing EV propulsion and inductive charging systems for the General Motors EV1, the first modern production EV. John's recent focus has been on the development of integrated and holistic EV teaching materials for the engineering student and the automotive professional.

G. Abas Goodarzi, PhD, P.E., is the Chief Executive Officer and President of US Hybrid Corporation, Torrance, California, which he founded in 1999. He is also the President of US FuelCell, a company formed with the acquisition by US Hybrid of the United Technologies PEM fuel cell transportation division. He served as Senior Scientist at General Motors' Hughes Aircraft subsidiary, and as Technical Director for the General Motors EV1. He has designed various EV, HEV, and FCEV powertrain systems for light, medium, and heavy-duty, on-road, off-road, and special-purpose vehicles.

Contents

Preface xix

Acknowledgments xxi

Textbook Structure and Suggested Teaching Curriculum xxii

About the Companion Web Site xxiv

Part 1 Vehicles and Energy Sources 1

1 Electromobility and the Environment 3

1.1 A Brief History of the Electric Powertrain 4

1.1.1 Part I - The Birth of the Electric Car 4

1.1.2 Part II - The Resurgent Electric Powertrain 5

1.1.3 Part III - Success at Last for the Electric Powertrain 6

1.2 Energy Sources for Propulsion and Emissions 10

1.2.1 Carbon Emissions from Fuels 12

1.2.1.1 Example: Carbon Dioxide Emissions from the Combustion of Gasoline 12

1.2.2 Greenhouse Gases and Pollutants 13

1.2.2.1 The Impact of NOx 14

1.3 The Advent of Regulations 15

1.3.1 Regulatory Considerations and Emissions Trends 17

1.3.2 Heavy-Duty Vehicle Regulations 18

1.4 Drive Cycles 19

1.4.1 EPA Drive Cycles 19

1.5 BEV Fuel Consumption, Range, and mpge 24

1.6 Carbon Emissions for Conventional and Electric Powertrains 25

1.6.1 Well-to-Wheel and Cradle-to-Grave Emissions 27

1.6.2 Emissions due to the Electrical Grid 28

1.6.2.1 Example: Determining Electrical Grid Emissions 28

1.7 An Overview of Conventional, Battery, Hybrid, and Fuel Cell Electric Systems 29

1.7.1 Conventional IC Engine Vehicle 30

1.7.2 BEVs 30

1.7.3 HEVs 31

1.7.3.1 Series HEV 32

1.7.3.2 Parallel HEV 32

1.7.3.3 Series-Parallel HEV 33

1.7.4 FCEV 33

1.7.5 A Comparison by Efficiency of Conventional, Hybrid, Battery, and Fuel Cell Vehicles 34

1.7.6 A Case Study Comparison of Conventional, Hybrid, Battery, and Fuel Cell Vehicles 35

1.8 A Comparison of Automotive and Other Transportation Technologies 36

References 37

Further Reading 38

Problems 38

Assignments 39

2 Vehicle Dynamics 40

2.1 Vehicle Load Forces 40

2.1.1 Basic Power, Energy, and Speed Relationships 41

2.1.2 Aerodynamic Drag 42

2.1.2.1 Example: Aerodynamic Drag 43

2.1.2.2 Example: Aerodynamic Drag and Fuel Consumption 45

2.1.3 Rolling Resistance 45

2.1.3.1 The Ford Explorer Recall 45

2.1.3.2 The A-Class Mercedes in the 1990s 46

2.1.3.3 The Tesla Model S in 2013 46

2.1.3.4 Example: Rolling Resistance 46

2.1.4 Vehicle Road-Load Coefficients from EPA Coast-Down Testing 46

2.1.5 Battery Electric Vehicle Range at Constant Speed 49

2.1.5.1 Example: Plot of BEV Range Versus Speed 49

2.1.5.2 Example: Estimate of BEV Range 50

2.1.5.3 Example: Effect of Auxiliary Loads on Range 50

2.1.6 Gradability 51

2.1.6.1 Example: Downgrade Force and Regeneration 51

2.2 Vehicle Acceleration 52

2.2.1 Regenerative Braking of the Vehicle 54

2.2.2 Traction Motor Characteristics 54

2.2.2.1 Example: 2015 Nissan Leaf Rated Speed 55

2.2.3 Acceleration of the Vehicle 57

2.2.3.1 Time-Step Estimation of Vehicle Speed 57

2.2.3.2 A Simplified Equation Set for Characterizing Acceleration by Ignoring Load Forces 57

2.3 Simple Drive Cycle for Vehicle Comparisons 60

References 62

Further Reading 62

Problems 62

Assignment: Modeling of a BEV 66

3 Batteries 68

3.1 Introduction to Batteries 68

3.1.1 Batteries Types and Battery Packs 68

3.1.1.1 Recent EVs and Battery Chemistries 70

3.1.2 Basic Battery Operation 73

3.1.3 Basic Electrochemistry 74

3.1.3.1 Lead-Acid Battery 74

3.1.3.2 Nickel-Metal Hydride 75

3.1.3.3 Lithium-Ion 76

3.1.4 Units of Battery Energy Storage 76

3.1.5 Capacity Rate 77

3.1.5.1 Example of the 2011 Nissan Leaf Battery Pack 78

3.1.6 Battery Parameters and Comparisons 79

3.1.6.1 Cell Voltage 79

3.1.6.2 Specific Energy 80

3.1.6.3 Cycle Life 80

3.1.6.4 Specific Power 81

3.1.6.5 Self-Discharge 81

3.2 Lifetime and Sizing Considerations 81

3.2.1 Examples of Battery Sizing 84

3.2.1.1 Example: BEV Battery Sizing 84

3.2.1.2 Example: PHEV Battery Sizing 85

3.2.2 Battery Pack Discharge Curves and Aging 86

3.3 Battery Charging, Protection, and Management Systems 88

3.3.1 Battery Charging 88

3.3.2 Battery Failure and Protection 88

3.3.3 Battery Management System 89

3.4 Battery Models 90

3.4.1 A Simple Novel Curve Fit Model for BEV Batteries 92

3.4.2 Voltage, Current, Resistance, and Efficiency of Battery Pack 95

3.4.2.1 Example: Determining the Pack Voltage Range for a BEV 96

3.4.3 A Simple Curve-Fit Model for HEV Batteries 96

3.4.3.1 Example: Determining the Pack Voltage Range for a HEV 97

3.4.4 Charging 97

3.4.4.1 Example: Fast Charging a Battery Pack 98

3.4.5 Determining the Cell/Pack Voltage for a Given Output\Input Power 99

3.4.5.1 Example: Battery Discharge 99

3.4.5.2 Example: Battery Charge 100

3.4.6 Cell Energy and Discharge Rate 100

3.4.6.1 Example: Cell Capacity 101

3.5 Example: The Fuel Economy of a BEV Vehicle with a Fixed Gear Ratio 102

References 105

Further Reading 106

Problems 106

Appendix: A Simplified Curve-Fit Model for BEV Batteries 108

4 Fuel Cells 111

4.1 Introduction to Fuel Cells 111

4.1.1 Fuel Cell Vehicle Emissions and Upstream Emissions 113

4.1.2 Hydrogen Safety Factors 113

4.2 Basic Operation 114

4.2.1 Fuel Cell Model and Cell Voltage 116

4.2.1.1 Example: No-Load and Load Voltages of a PEM Fuel Cell 117

4.2.2 Power and Efficiency of Fuel Cell and Fuel Cell Power Plant System 118

4.2.2.1 Example: Full-Load Power and Efficiency of PEM Fuel Cell Stack 118

4.2.3 Fuel Cell Characteristic Curves 119

4.3 Sizing the Fuel Cell Plant 120

4.3.1 Example: Sizing a Fuel Cell 121

4.3.2 Toyota Mirai 121

4.3.3 Balance of Plant 121

4.3.4 Boost DC-DC Converter 122

4.4 Fuel Cell Aging 122

4.5 Example: Sizing Fuel Cell System for Heavy Goods Tractor-Trailer Combination 124

4.6 Example: Fuel Economy of Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle 126

References 129

Problems 129

Assignments 130

5 Conventional and Hybrid Powertrains 131

5.1 Introduction to HEVs 131

5.2 Brake Specific Fuel Consumption 134

5.2.1 Example: Energy Consumption, Power Output, Efficiency, and BSFC 135

5.3 Comparative Examples of Conventional, Series, and Series-Parallel Hybrid Systems 138

5.3.1 Example: Fuel Economy of IC Engine Vehicle with Gasoline or Diesel Engine 138

5.3.2 Example: Fuel Economy of Series HEV 144

5.3.3 Example: Fuel Economy of Series-Parallel HEV 146

5.3.4 Summary of Comparisons 148

5.4 The Planetary Gears as a Power-Split Device 148

5.4.1 Powertrain of 2004 Toyota Prius 150

5.4.2 Example: CVT Operating in Electric Drive Mode (Vehicle Launch and Low Speeds) 151

5.4.3 Example: CVT Operating in Full-Power Mode 153

5.4.4 Example: CVT Operating in Cruising and Generating Mode 154

References 155

Problems 155

Assignments 156

Part 2 Electrical Machines 159

6 Introduction to Traction Machines 161

6.1 Propulsion Machine Overview 161

6.1.1 DC Machines 162

6.1.2 AC Machines 163

6.1.3 Comparison of Traction Machines 167

6.1.4 Case Study - Mars Rover Traction Motor 169

6.2 Machine Specifications 170

6.2.1 Four-Quadrant Operation 170

6.2.2 Rated Parameters 171

6.2.3 Rated Torque 172

6.2.4 Rated and Base Speeds 172

6.2.5 Rated Power 172

6.2.6 Peak Operation 173

6.2.7 Starting Torque 173

6.3 Characteristic Curves of a Machine 173

6.3.1 Constant-Torque Mode 173

6.3.2 Constant-Power Mode 174

6.3.3 Maximum-Speed Mode 174

6.3.4 Efficiency Maps 174

6.4 Conversion Factors of Machine Units 176

References 177

7 The Brushed DC Machine 178

7.1 DC Machine Structure 178

7.2 DC Machine Electrical Equivalent Circuit 180

7.3 DC Machine Circuit Equations 182

7.3.1 No-Load Spinning Loss 183

7.3.2 No-Load Speed 184

7.3.3 Maximum Power 184

7.3.4 Rated Conditions 184

7.4 Power, Losses, and Efficiency in the PM DC Machine 185

7.5 Machine Control using Power Electronics 186

7.5.1 Example: Motoring using a PM DC Machine 186

7.6 Machine Operating as a Motor or Generator in Forward or Reverse Modes 189

7.6.1 Example: Generating/Braking using a PM DC Machine 190

7.6.2 Example: Motoring in Reverse 191

7.7 Saturation and Armature Reaction 191

7.7.1 Example: Motoring using PM DC Machine and Machine Saturation 192

7.8 Using PM DC Machine for EV Powertrain 193

7.8.1 Example: Maximum Speeds using PM DC Machine 194

7.9 Using WF DC Machine for EV Powertrain 195

7.9.1 Example: Motoring using WF DC Machine 197

7.10 Case Study - Mars Rover Traction Machine 199

7.11 Thermal Characteristics of Machine 201

7.11.1 Example of Steady-State Temperature Rise 202

7.11.2 Transient Temperature Rise 203

7.11.3 Example of Transient Temperature Rise 203

References 204

Problems 204

8 Induction Machines 206

8.1 Stator Windings and the Spinning Magnetic Field 207

8.1.1 Stator Magnetic Flux Density 209

8.1.2 Space-Vector Current and the Rotating Magnetic Field 211

8.2 Induction Machine Rotor Voltage, Current, and Torque 216

8.2.1 Rotor Construction 216

8.2.2 Induction Machine Theory of Operation 216

8.3 Machine Model and Steady-State Operation 219

8.3.1 Power in Three-Phase Induction Machine 222

8.3.2 Torque in Three-Phase Induction Machine 223

8.3.3 Phasor Analysis of Induction Motor 225

8.3.4 Machine Operation When Supplied by Current Source 225

8.3.4.1 Example: Motoring at Rated Speed using Induction Machine 228

8.3.4.2 Example: Motoring at Rated Speed using Induction Machine - Ignoring Leakage 231

8.3.4.3 Example: Generating at Rated Speed using Induction Machine 232

8.4 Variable-Speed Operation of Induction Machine 234

8.4.1 Constant Volts per hertz Operation 235

8.4.1.1 Example: Maintaining a Constant Volts per Hertz 235

8.4.2 Variable-Speed Operation 235

8.4.2.1 Example: Field-Weakened Motoring at Twice the Rated Speed using Induction Machine 236

8.4.2.2 Example: Stall/Start-Up using Induction Machine 238

8.4.2.3 Effects of Rotor Heating 240

8.5 Machine Test 240

8.5.1 DC Resistance Test 240

8.5.2 Locked-Rotor Test 240

8.5.3 No-Load Test 242

8.5.3.1 Example of Machine Characterization 243

References 244

Further Reading 244

Problems 245

Sample MATLAB Code 246

9 Surface-Permanent-Magnet AC Machines 249

9.1 Basic Operation of SPM Machines 249

9.1.1 Back EMF of a Single Coil 249

9.1.2 Back EMF of Single Phase 250

9.1.2.1 The Experimental Back EMF 253

9.1.2.2...