Yujun Song, PhD, is Professor in Physics at University of Science and Technology Beijing, China, and Deputy Director of Center for Modern Physics Technology. He has previously studied and worked in both the United States and Canada. In addition to his extensive research into subjects such as surface and interface-controlled fabrication of functional materials for information technology, new energy and catalysis, and biomedicine, he is the long-time instructor of graduate and undergraduate courses on the characterization of condensed matter.

Qingwei Liao, PhD, is Associate Professor at Beijing Information Science & Technology University, China. She has previously held a visiting faculty position at Harvard University and has published extensively on nanomaterials, applied physics, and related subjects. She serves as the main lecturer of courses like modern analytical testing methods for graduate students.

Part I Fundamental of Universe, Matter, Condensed Matter and Materials 1

1 Universe, Matter, Condensed Matter and Materials 3

1.1 Features of the Universe and Fundamental Constants 4

1.2 Structure and Composition of Matter 9

1.2.1 Classification and Characteristics of Matter (Radiation Coupling and Energy Conservation) 9

1.2.2 Fundamental Particles 9

1.2.3 Fundamental Forces 11

1.3 Fundamental Constants Describing the Universe and Matter 15

1.4 Experiments to Study Fundamental Particles and Forces 20

1.5 Introduction to Condensed Matter and Materials 27

1.5.1 Classification of Condensed Matter 28

1.5.2 Structures and Compositions of Condensed Matter or Materials 30

1.5.3 Intrinsic Properties of Condensed Matter and Materials 32

1.6 Main Research Areas in Condensed Matter Physics 33

Questions for Thinking 34

References 34

2 The Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory 37

2.1 A Brief History of Gravitational and Gravitational-Wave Measurements 37

2.2 Fundamentals of LIGO and Related Facility Development 39

2.2.1 Detecting Gravitational Waves 41

2.2.2 Educational Analogy Experiments 44

2.2.2.1 Herriott Delay Line 45

2.3 Key Components of the LIGO Facility 47

2.3.1 Coherent Laser Source and Laser 47

2.3.2 The Laser Interferometer Detector 47

2.3.3 Fourier Transform and Signal Processing System 48

2.4 Application of LIGO 49

2.4.1 Detection of a Supernova Explosion 49

2.4.2 Detection of Black Hole Fusion 50

Questions for Thinking 51

List of Abbreviations 51

References 51

3 Fundamentals of Crystallography: Microstructures and Crystal Phases of Condensed Matter 55

3.1 The Microstructure of Condensed Matter and Materials 55

3.1.1 The Microscale 55

3.1.2 The Hard-Sphere Model 56

3.1.3 Energy and Packing 57

3.1.4 Crystals, Quasicrystals and Amorphous Structures 58

3.2 The Unit Cell 60

3.2.1 Lattice and Motif 60

3.2.2 Lattice and Crystal Structure 61

3.2.3 Unit Cell and Unit Vectors 61

3.2.4 Unit Cells, Bravais Lattices and Crystal Systems 63

3.2.5 Unit Cells and Their Parameters 65

3.3 Crystal Structures (Phases) 65

3.3.1 Close Packing and Stacking 65

3.3.2 The Face-Centered Cubic (FCC) Lattice and its Parameters 67

3.3.3 The Body-Centered Cubic (BCC) Lattice and its Parameters 69

3.3.4 The Hexagonal Close-Packed (HCP) Lattice and its Parameters 70

3.3.5 Point Coordinates and Crystallographic Directions 71

3.3.6 Crystallographic Families and Symmetry 72

3.3.7 Coordinate Transformations 72

3.3.8 Crystallographic Planes and Miller Indices 73

3.3.9 Linear Density, Planar Density and Crystal Density 74

3.4 Quasicrystals 77

3.4.1 A Brief History of Quasicrystals 77

3.4.2 Phase and Structure Characteristics of Quasicrystals 79

Questions for Thinking 79

References 80

Part II Electromagnetic Spectroscopy 81

4 Elements of X-Ray Diffraction 83

4.1 Diffraction of X-Rays 83

4.1.1 The Kinematical Theory of Diffraction 85

4.1.2 The Dynamical Diffraction Theory 85

4.1.3 The Mechanism of the Interaction between X-Rays and the Unit Cell 86

4.1.4 Scattering of X-Rays and the Structure Factor of the Unit Cell 86

4.2 Development of X-Ray Diffraction 88

4.3 Generation of X-Rays 91

4.3.1 X-Ray Tubes: Cathode Ray Tube Structure 91

4.3.2 The Interaction of X-Rays with Matter 92

4.3.2.1 Scattering of X-Rays 92

4.3.2.2 Absorption of X-Rays by Matter 93

4.4 Applications 94

4.4.1 Crystal Phase Analysis 94

4.4.2 Determination of Inner Stress of Condensed Samples 97

4.4.2.1 Measurement of Residual Stress in Polycrystalline Materials 98

4.4.2.2 Measurement of Residual Stress in Single-Crystalline Materials 100

Questions for Thinking 101

References 101

5 X-Ray Fluorescence Spectroscopy (XRF) 103

5.1 Theoretical Foundations 103

5.2 General Setup of an XRF Spectrometer 104

5.3 Types of XRF Analyzers 107

5.4 History and Current Status of XRF 108

5.5 Applications 109

5.6 Appendix 112

5.6.1 Analysis of XRF Spectra 112

5.6.2 Total Reflection XRF, Proton-Excited XRF and Synchrotron Radiation XRF Spectrometry 113

Questions for Thinking 114

References 114

6 X-Ray Emission Spectroscopy (XES) 115

6.1 Principles of XAS and XES 115

6.2 Classification of XES 118

6.3 History of XES and Common XES Spectrometers 119

6.4 Applications 119

Questions for Thinking 121

References 121

7 X-Ray Absorption Spectroscopy (XAS) 123

7.1 The Physics of XAS 123

7.1.1 The Principle of X-Ray Absorption Near-Edge Structure (XANES) Spectroscopy 123

7.1.2 The Principle of Extended X-Ray Absorption Fine Structure (EXAFS) Spectroscopy 124

7.2 Generation of X-Ray Synchrotron Radiation 125

7.2.1 The Structure of Synchrotron Radiation Facilities 126

7.2.2 Synchrotron Radiation Facilities Around the World 127

7.3 Applications of XANES Spectroscopy 132

7.4 Applications of EXAFS Spectroscopy 133

7.5 Differences Between EXAFS and XANES 133

Questions for Thinking 134

References 134

8 X-Ray Raman Scattering (XRS) 137

8.1 Interaction of Light and Matter in XRS 137

8.2 A Brief History of XRS Spectrometers 139

8.3 Components of an XRS Spectrometer 141

8.3.1 X-Ray Scattering Crystal Detector 141

8.3.2 High-Resolution Crystal Detector 142

8.3.3 A Superlattice Thin-Film Mirror Surface as a Double Multilayer Monochromator 142

8.3.4 The Detection of Scattered Photons in XRS 143

8.4 Applications of XRS 143

8.4.1 Chemistry 143

8.4.2 Polymer Science 143

8.4.3 Materials Science 144

8.4.4 Biology 145

8.4.5 Chinese Herbal Medicine 146

8.4.6 Gem Research 146

8.4.7 Investigation of Cultural Relics 147

8.5 Summary and Outlook 147

Questions for Thinking 148

References 148

9 Fourier-Transform Infrared (FTIR) Spectroscopy 149

9.1 General Scope of FTIR Spectroscopy 149

9.2 A Brief History of IR Spectrometers 150

9.3 Basic Concepts 150

9.4 Setup of a Standard FTIR Instrument 153

9.5 Advantages of FTIR Spectroscopy 155

9.5.1 Signal-to-Noise Ratio and Linearity 155

9.5.2 Accuracy 155

9.5.3 Data Handling Facility 155

9.5.4 Mechanical Simplicity 155

9.6 Key Elements of an FTIR Spectrometer 156

9.6.1 IR Light Source and Laser 156

9.6.2 Michelson Interferometer and Beam Splitter 156

9.6.2.1 Michelson Interferometer 156

9.6.2.2 Measuring and Processing the Interferogram 158

9.6.2.3 Beamsplitter 160

9.6.3 Infrared Photodetector 160

9.6.4 Fourier Transform and Signal Processing System 161

9.7 Spectral Range 161

9.7.1 Far Infrared 161

9.7.2 Mid Infrared 161

9.7.3 Near Infrared 161

9.8 Application of FTIR Spectroscopy 162

9.8.1 Biological Materials 162

9.8.2 Microscopy and Imaging 162

9.8.3 Studies at the Nanoscale and Spectroscopy Below the Diffraction Limit 162

9.8.4 FTIR Systems as Detectors in Chromatography 162

9.8.5 Thermogravimetric Analysis 163

9.8.6 Emission Spectroscopy and IR Chemiluminescence 163

9.8.7 Kinetics of Chemical Reactions and Spectra of Transient Species 163

Questions for Thinking 164

References 164

10 Energy-Dispersive X-Ray (EDX) Spectroscopy of Elements 167

10.1 Principles of EDX Spectroscopy 167

10.1.1 Production of Characteristic X-Rays 167

10.2 A Brief History of EDX Spectrometer Development 169

10.3 Key Components of EDX Spectrometers 170

10.3.1 The X-Ray Generator 170

10.3.2 The Vacuum System 170

10.3.3 The X-Ray Detector 171

10.3.3.1 The Semiconductor Detectors 171

10.3.3.2 The Direct Detectors 172

10.3.3.3 The Indirect Detectors 172

10.3.4 The Signal Processing System 173

10.4 Applications of EDX Spectroscopy 173

10.4.1 Surface Penetration 173

10.4.2 Elemental Resolution, Reliability, and Errors 173

10.4.3 Characteristics of EDX Energy Spectrometers 174

Questions for Thinking 175

References 176

Part III Characterization Methods Based on the Particle (electron Or Electron Beam, Neutron)-matter Interaction 177

11 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) 179

11.1 Interaction Between the Electron Beam and Matter 180

11.1.1 Elastic Scattering 180

11.1.2 Inelastic Scattering 181

11.2 Signal Detection 182

11.2.1 Primary and Secondary Electrons 183

11.2.2 Backscattered Electrons and Auger Electrons 183

11.2.3 The Relation Between Surface Topography and Secondary Electrons 184

11.2.4 The Relation Between Atomic Number z and Backscattered Electrons 184

11.3 History of SEM Development 185

11.4 Key Components of SEM Devices 186

11.4.1 Electron Beam Sources 186

11.4.1.1 Thermionic Electron Guns 186

11.4.1.2 Field-Emission Electron Guns 187

11.4.2 Electronic Detectors 187

11.4.3 Signal Processing and Imaging System 188

11.5 Application and Expansion of SEM 190

11.5.1 Analysis of Powder Particles 190

11.5.2 Fracture Analysis 190

11.5.3 Observation and Analysis Metallographic Structures 190

11.5.4 Dynamic Study of Fracture Processes 191