List of Figures x

List of Tables xiv

Preface to the Third Edition xv

List of Abbreviations xvi

1 Introduction 1

1.1 Phonetics and phonology 1

1.2 Theory and analysis 4

1.3 Applications of phonetics and phonology 6

1.4 Outline of this book 7

Exercises 9

2 Segmental Articulation 10

2.1 Introduction 10

2.2 A functional overview of the speech production process 11

2.3 The organs of speech 15

2.4 Describing speech sounds 16

2.5 Airstream mechanisms 16

2.6 Modes of phonation 19

2.7 Vocalic sounds 22

2.8 Duration and glide in vocalic articulations 32

2.9 Consonantal sounds 36

2.10 Vocal tract place 38

2.11 Tongue position 41

2.12 Manner of articulation 43

2.13 Stricture 49

2.14 Force 51

2.15 Length 51

2.16 Voice onset 52

Exercises 53

3 Units of Speech 55

Introduction 55

3.1 Identifying the units of speech 56

3.2 Complex articulations 61

3.3 Nasalization 62

3.4 Labialization 63

3.5 Palatalization 64

3.6 Velarization and pharyngealization 64

3.7 Affrication 65

3.8 Double articulation 65

3.9 Vowel retroflexion 66

3.10 Diphthongization 66

3.11 Syllabicity 67

3.12 Segmentation and structure 69

3.13 Diphthongs and related phenomena 71

3.14 Interpretations 74

Exercises 79

4 The Phonemic Organization of Speech 81

Introduction 81

4.1 Phonetic variability 81

4.2 The phoneme 90

4.3 Allophones 93

4.4 Phonemic norms 98

4.5 Pattern and symmetry 99

4.6 Phonological reality 103

4.7 Units and boundaries 105

4.8 Invariance and overlap 107

4.9 Biuniqueness and neutralization 109

4.10 Morphophonemic alternations 114

4.11 Free variation 116

4.12 The sounds of the world's languages 118

Exercises 124

5 The Generative Approach to Phonology 126

Introduction 126

5.1 The origins of generative phonology 126

5.2 The sound pattern of English 129

5.3 Basic rule notation in generative phonology 131

5.4 Formalism and evaluation 137

5.5 Abbreviatory devices in rule notation 139

5.6 Rule order 145

5.7 Functional considerations 148

5.8 Naturalness and markedness 152

5.9 Abstractness 154

Exercises 157

6 The Anatomy and Physiology of Speech Production 159

6.1 Introduction 159

6.2 Conventions of anatomical description 160

6.3 The nervous system 162

6.4 The respiratory system 168

6.5 The larynx 175

6.6 Phonation 184

6.7 The pharynx 190

6.8 The velum and the nasal cavity 191

6.9 The oral cavity 194

6.10 The tongue 195

6.11 The lips 198

6.12 The mandible 200

Exercises 202

7 The Acoustics of Speech Production 204

Introduction 204

7.1 The nature of sound 205

7.2 The propagation of sound 207

7.3 Simple harmonic motion 207

7.4 Complex vibrations 213

7.5 Resonance 216

7.6 Basic amplitude properties of sound waves 219

7.7 Time domain properties of sound waves 223

7.8 Frequency domain properties of sound waves 224

7.9 Some basic perceptual properties of sound waves 230

7.10 The acoustic model of speech production 233

7.11 Phonation as a sound source 234

7.12 Sources of frication 238

7.13 The vocal tract filter in vowel production 240

7.14 Spectrographic analysis of speech 249

7.15 Acoustic properties of vowel quality 261

7.16 The vocal tract filter in consonant production 272

7.17 The acoustic properties of consonants in syllables 278

7.18 The relationship between articulatory and acoustic

properties of speech production 288

7.19 Acoustic features of prosody 292

Exercises 296

8 Speech Perception 297

8.1 Introduction 297

8.2 The auditory system 298

8.3 Psychophysical properties of the auditory system 301

8.4 Speech intelligibility 304

8.5 Acoustic-phonetic perception 308

8.6 Vowel perception 311

8.7 Consonant perception 313

8.8 Units of perception 314

8.9 Prosodic perception 318

8.10 Word recognition 320

8.11 Models of speech perception 321

8.12 Conclusion 324

Exercises 324

9 Prosody 326

9.1 Introduction 326

9.2 The phonetic basis of suprasegmentals 330

9.3 The systemic organization of prosody 337

9.4 Tone languages 342

9.5 Pitch-accent languages 347

9.6 Stress in English 349

9.7 Stress assignment 354

9.8 Intonation in English 359

9.9 Tones and break indices 364

Exercises 370

10 Feature Systems 372

10.1 Introduction 372

10.2 Acoustic features 373

10.3 Articulatory features 374

10.4 Perceptual features 375

10.5 Distinctive features 376

10.6 Cover features 377

10.7 Abstract features 379

10.8 Accuracy and universality 380

10.9 Universal feature systems 384

10.10 Features and discreteness 385

10.11 Hierarchical organization of features 386

10.12 Feature geometry 389

10.13 Overview 391

Exercises 391

11 The Progress of Phonology 393

Introduction 393

11.1 Currents of theory 394

11.2 Phonetics and phonology before the twentieth century 397

11.3 The phoneme 399

11.4 The traditions of phonetics 400

11.5 Phonology in North America 401

11.6 The Prague School 403

11.7 Glossematics and stratificational phonology 404

11.8 Firthian prosodic phonology 406

11.9 Generative phonology 408

11.10 Natural generative phonology 410

11.11 Natural phonology 411

11.12 Autosegmental and CV phonology 413

11.13 Metrical phonology 417

11.14 Lexical phonology 419

11.15 Dependency phonology 421

11.16 Optimality theory 423

11.17 Prosodic phonology 426

11.18 Phonology in the laboratory 428

11.19 Conclusion 431

Exercises 433

Appendix 1: Phonetic Symbols 435

1.1 Vowel symbols 435

1.2 Consonant symbols 436

1.3 Diacritics and conventions for complex articulations 438

1.4 Symbols used in transcription of English 439

Appendix 2: Features 442

2.1 Jakobson and Halle's distinctive features 442

2.2 Chomsky and Halle's universal set of phonetic features 443

2.3 Ladefoged's 'Traditional Features' 444

2.4 Components in dependency phonology 446

References 447

Index 474