Saeed Farokhi, PhD, is Professor Emeritus of Aerospace Engineering at the University of Kansas, USA. His main areas of research focus are propulsion systems, flow control, renewable energy, and computational fluid dynamics. He is Fellow of the Royal Aeronautical Society and the American Society of Mechanical Engineers. He is Associate Fellow of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics.

Preface to the Third Edition

Preface to the Second Edition

Preface to the First Edition

1. Introduction

1.1 History of the Airbreathing Jet Engine, a Twentieth-Century Invention--The Beginning

1.2 Innovations in Aircraft Gas Turbine Engines

1.2.1 Multispool Configuration

1.2.2 Variable Stator

1.2.3 Transonic Compressor

1.2.4 Low-Emission Combustor

1.2.5 Turbine Cooling

1.2.6 Exhaust Nozzles

1.2.7 Modern Materials and Manufacturing Techniques

1.3 Twenty-first Century Aviation Goal: Sustainability

1.3.1 Combustion Emissions

1.3.2 Greenhouse Gases

1.3.3 Fuels for Sustainable Aviation

1.4 New Engine Concepts in Sustainable Aviation

1.4.1 Advanced GT Concepts: ATP/CROR and GTF

1.4.2 Adaptive Cycle Engine

1.4.3 Advanced Airbreathing Rocket Technology

1.4.4 Wave Rotor Topping Cycle

1.4.5 Pulse Detonation Engine (PDE)

1.4.6 Millimeter-Scale Gas Turbine Engines: Triumph of MEMS and Digital Fabrication

1.4.7 Combined Cycle Propulsion: Engines from Takeoff to Space

1.4.8 Hybrid-Electric and Distributed Electric Propulsion

1.5 New Vehicle Technologies

1.6 Summary

1.7 Roadmap for the Third Edition

References

Problems

2. Compressible Flow with Heat and Friction: A Review

2.1 Introduction

2.2 A Brief Review of Thermodynamics

2.3 Isentropic Process and Isentropic Flow

2.4 Conservation Principles for Systems and Control Volumes

2.5 Speed of Sound & Mach Number

2.6 Stagnation State

2.7 Quasi-One-Dimensional Flow

2.8 Area-Mach Number Relationship

2.9 Sonic Throat

2.10 Waves in Supersonic Flow

2.11 Normal Shocks

2.12 Oblique Shocks

2.13 Conical Shocks

2.14 Expansion Waves

2.15 Frictionless, Constant-Area Duct Flow with Heat Transfer: Rayleigh Flow

2.16 Adiabatic Flow of a Calorically Perfect Gas in a Constant-Area Duct with Friction: Fanno Flow

2.17 Friction (Drag) Coefficient Cf and D'Arcy Friction Factor fD

2.18 Dimensionless Parameters

2.19 Fluid Impulse

2.20 Summary of Fluid Impulse

References

Problems

3. Engine Thrust and Performance Parameters

3.1 Introduction

3.1.1 Takeoff Thrust

3.2 Installed Thrust--Some Bookkeeping Issues on Thrust and Drag

3.3 Engine Thrust Based on the Sum of Component Impulse

3.4 Rocket Thrust

3.5 Airbreathing Engine Performance Parameters

3.5.1 Specific Thrust

3.5.2 Specific Fuel Consumption and Specific Impulse

3.5.3 Thermal Efficiency

3.5.4 Propulsive Efficiency

3.5.5 Engine Overall Efficiency and Its Impact on Aircraft Range and Endurance

3.6 Modern Engines, Their Architecture, and Some Performance Characteristics

3.7 Summary

References

Problems

4. Gas Turbine Engine Cycle Analysis

4.1 Introduction

4.2 The Gas Generator

4.3 Aircraft Gas Turbine Engines

4.3.1 The Turbojet Engine

4.3.1.1 The Inlet

4.3.1.2 The Compressor

4.3.1.3 The Burner

4.3.1.4 The Turbine

4.3.1.5 The Nozzle

4.3.1.6 Thermal Efficiency of a Turbojet Engine

4.3.1.7 Propulsive Efficiency of a Turbojet Engine

4.3.1.8 The Overall Efficiency of a Turbojet Engine

4.3.1.9 Performance Evaluation of a Turbojet Engine

4.3.2 The Turbojet Engine with an Afterburner

4.3.2.1 Introduction

4.3.2.2 Analysis

4.3.2.3 Optimum Compressor Pressure Ratio for Maximum (Ideal) Thrust Turbojet Engine with Afterburner

4.3.3 The Turbofan Engine

4.3.3.1 Introduction

4.3.3.2 Analysis of a Separate-Exhaust Turbofan Engine

4.3.3.3 Thermal Efficiency of a Turbofan Engine

4.3.3.4 Propulsive Efficiency of a Turbofan Engine

4.3.4 Ultra-High Bypass (UHB) Turbofan Engines

4.4 Analysis of a Mixed-Exhaust Turbofan Engine with an Afterburner

4.4.1 Mixer

4.4.2 Cycle Analysis

4.4.2.1 Solution Procedure

4.5 The Turboprop Engine

4.5.1 Introduction

4.5.2 Propeller Theory

4.5.2.1 Momentum Theory

4.5.2.2 Blade Element Theory

4.5.3 Turboprop Cycle Analysis

4.5.3.1 The New Parameters

4.5.3.2 Design Point Analysis

4.5.3.3 Optimum Power Split Between the Propeller and the Jet

4.6 Promising Propulsion and Power Technologies in Sustainable Aviation

4.6.1 Distributed Combustion Concepts in Advanced Gas Turbine Engine Core

4.6.2 Multi-Fuel (Cryogenic-Kerosene) Hybrid Propulsion Concept

4.6.3 Intercooled and Recuperated Turbofan Engines

4.6.4 Active Core Concepts

4.6.5 Wave Rotor Combustion

4.6.6 Pulse Detonation Engine (PDE)

4.6.6.1 Idealized Laboratory PDE: Thrust Tube

4.6.6.2 Pulse Detonation Ramjet

4.6.6.3 Turbofan Engine with PDE

4.6.6.4 Pulse Detonation Rocket Engine (PDRE)

4.6.6.5 Vehicle-Level Performance Evaluation of PDE

4.6.7 Adaptive Cycle Engines (ACE)

4.7 Summary

References

Problems

5. General Aviation and Uninhabited Aerial Vehicle Propulsion System

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Cycle Analysis

5.2.1 Otto Cycle

5.2.2 Real Engine Cycles

5.2.2.1 Four-Stroke Cycle Engines

5.2.2.2 Diesel Engines

5.2.2.3 Two-Stroke Cycle Engines

5.2.2.4 Rotary (Wankel) Engines

5.3 Power and Efficiency

5.4 Engine Components and Classifications

5.4.1 Engine Components

5.4.2 Reciprocating Engine Classifications

5.4.2.1 Classification by Cylinder Arrangement

5.4.2.2 Classification by Cooling Arrangement

5.4.2.3 Classification by Operating Cycle

5.4.2.4 Classification by Ignition Type

5.5 Scaling of Aircraft Reciprocating Engines

5.5.1 Scaling of Aircraft Diesel Engines

5.6 Aircraft Engine Systems

5.6.1 Aviation Fuels and Engine Knock

5.6.2 Carburetion and Fuel Injection Systems

5.6.2.1 Float-Type Carburetors

5.6.2.2 Pressure Injection Carburetors

5.6.2.3 Fuel Injection Systems

5.6.2.4 Full Authority Digital Engine Control (FADEC)

5.6.3 Ignition Systems

5.6.3.1 Battery Ignition Systems

5.6.3.2 High Tension Ignition System

5.6.3.3 Low Tension Ignition System

5.6.3.4 Full Authority Digital Engine Control (FADEC)

5.6.3.5 Ignition Boosters

5.6.3.6 Spark Plugs

5.6.4 Lubrication Systems

5.6.5 Supercharging

5.7 Electric Engines

5.7.1 Electric Motors

5.7.2 Solar cells

5.7.3 Advanced Batteries

5.7.4 Fuel cells

5.7.5 State of the Art for Electric Propulsion - Future Technology

5.8 Propellers and Reduction Gears

References

Problems

6. Aircraft Engine Inlets and Nozzles

6.1 Introduction

6.2 The Flight Mach Number and its Impact on Inlet Duct Geometry

6.3 Diffusers

6.4 An Ideal Diffuser

6.5 Real Diffusers and their Stall Characteristics

6.6 Subsonic Diffuser Performance

6.7 Subsonic Cruise Inlet

6.8 Transition Ducts

6.9 An Interim Summary for Subsonic Inlets

6.10 Supersonic Inlets

6.10.1 Isentropic Convergent-Divergent Inlets

6.10.2 Methods to Start a Supersonic Convergent-Divergent Inlet

6.10.2.1 Overspeeding

6.10.2.2 Kantrowitz-Donaldson Inlet

6.10.2.3 Variable-Throat Isentropic C-D Inlet

6.11 Normal Shock Inlets

6.12 External Compression Inlets

6.12.1 Optimum Ramp Angles

6.12.2 Design and Off-Design Operation

6.13 Variable Geometry--External Compression Inlets

6.13.1 Variable Ramps

6.14 Mixed-Compression Inlets

6.15 Supersonic Inlet Types and their Performance--A Review

6.16 Standards for Supersonic Inlet Recovery

6.17 Exhaust Nozzle

6.18 Gross Thrust

6.19 Nozzle Adiabatic Efficiency

6.20 Nozzle Total Pressure Ratio

6.21 Nozzle Pressure Ratio (NPR) and Critical Nozzle Pressure Ratio (NPRcrit.)

6.22 Relation between Nozzle Figures of Merit, eta n and pi n

6.23 A Convergent Nozzle or a De Laval?

6.24 The Effect of Boundary Layer Formation on Nozzle Internal Performance

6.25 Nozzle Exit Flow Velocity Coefficient

6.26 Effect of Flow Angularity on Gross Thrust

6.27 Nozzle Gross Thrust Coefficient Cfg

6.28 Overexpanded Nozzle Flow--Shock Losses

6.29 Nozzle Area Scheduling, A8 and A9/A8

6.30 Nozzle Exit Area Scheduling, A9/A8

6.31 Nozzle Cooling

6.32 Thrust Reverser and Thrust Vectoring

6.33 Hypersonic Nozzle

6.34 Exhaust Mixer and Gross Thrust Gain in a Mixed-Flow Turbofan Engine

6.35 Engine Noise

6.35.1 Subsonic Jet Noise

6.35.2 Chevron Nozzle

6.35.3 Supersonic Jet Noise

6.35.4 Engine Noise Mitigation through Wing Shielding

6.36 Nozzle-Turbine (Structural) Integration

6.37 Summary of Exhaust Systems

References

Problems

7. Combustion Chambers and Afterburners

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Laws Governing Mixture of Gases

7.3 Chemical Reaction and Flame Temperature

7.4 Chemical Equilibrium and Chemical Composition

7.4.1 The Law of Mass Action

7.4.2 Equilibrium Constant KP

7.5 Chemical Kinetics

7.5.1 Ignition and Relight Envelope

7.5.2 Reaction Timescale

7.5.3 Flammability Limits

7.5.4 Flame Speed

7.5.5 Flame Stability

7.5.6 Spontaneous Ignition Delay Time

7.5.7 Combustion-Generated Pollutants

7.6 Combustion Chamber

7.6.1 Combustion Chamber Total Pressure Loss

7.6.2 Combustor Flow Pattern and Temperature Profile

7.6.3 Combustor Liner and its Cooling Methods

7.6.4 Combustion Efficiency

7.6.5 Some Combustor Sizing and Scaling Laws

7.6.6 Afterburner

7.7 Combustion-Generated Pollutants

7.7.1 Greenhouse Gases, CO2 and H2O

7.7.2 Carbon Monoxide, CO, and Unburned Hydrocarbons, UHC

7.7.3 Oxides of Nitrogen, NO and NO2

7.7.4 Smoke

7.7.5 Engine Emission Standards

7.7.6 Low-Emission Combustors

7.7.7 Impact of NO on the Ozone Layer

7.8 Aviation Fuels

7.9 Alternative Jet Fuels (AJFs)

7.9.1 Conversion Pathways to Jet Fuel

7.9.2 AJF Evaluation and Certification/Qualification

7.9.3 Impact of Biofuel on Emissions

7.10 Cryogenic Fuels

7.10.1 Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG)

7.10.1.1 Composition of Natural Gas and LNG

7.10.2 Hydrogen

7.10.2.1 Hydrogen Production

7.10.2.2 Hydrogen Delivery and Storage

7.10.3 Energy Density Comparison

7.11 Combustion Instability: Screech and Rumble

7.11.1 Screech Damper

7.12 Summary

References

Problems

8. Aerodynamics of Axial-Flow Compressors and Fans

8.1 Introduction

8.2 The Geometry

8.3 Rotor and Stator Frames of Reference

8.4 The Euler Turbine Equation

8.5 Axial-Flow Versus Radial-Flow Machines

8.6 Axial-Flow Compressors and Fans

8.6.1 Definition of Flow Angles

8.6.2 Stage Parameters

8.6.3 Cascade Aerodynamics

8.6.4 Aerodynamic Forces on Compressor Blades

8.6.5 Three-Dimensional Flow

8.6.5.1 Blade Vortex Design

8.6.5.2 Three-Dimensional...